TABLE 2.
Effects of breakfast compared with no breakfast on cognitive function in healthy adults1
| Outcome of test occurrences4 |
|||||
| Cognitive domain | Total studies,2n | Total test occurrences,3n | Advantage of breakfast | Equivocal | Disadvantage of breakfast |
| Attention and processing | |||||
| Attentional capacity | 6 | 6 | 2 (18, 19) | 4 (14–17) | 0 |
| Vigilance | 8 | 8 | 3 (24–26) | 5 (15, 20–23) | 0 |
| Processing speed | 10 | 11 | 3 (19, 20, 30) | 6 (16, 21, 24, 27–29) | 2 (31)* |
| Executive functions | |||||
| Reasoning/planning | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 (32, 33) | 0 |
| Inhibitory control | 4 | 4 | 1 (35) | 1 (27) | 2 (31, 34) |
| Working memory | 14 | 17 | 9 (18, 19, 23, 27, 30, 35–38) | 8 (14, 16, 27, 28, 31, 34, 37, 38) | 0 |
| Language | |||||
| Semantic processing | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 (33) | 0 |
| Verbal fluency | 3 | 3 | 0 | 3 (16, 34, 37) | 0 |
| Motor | |||||
| Gross motor speed | 2 | 2 | 1 (21) | 1 (15) | 0 |
| Learning and memory | |||||
| Immediate recall | 6 | 6 | 3 (17, 38, 40) | 3 (27, 34, 39) | 0 |
| Delayed recall | 19 | 23 | 16 (14–17, 21, 24, 29, 32–34, 38, 40–43)* | 7 (14, 15, 27, 34, 39, 44, 45) | 0 |
| Recognition | 4 | 4 | 3 (17, 38, 46) | 1 (27) | 0 |
1
Findings are presented for 34 different studies. Some studies examined certain subdomains with the use of >1 measure. *Instances in which the same study included >1 test in that domain with the noted result.
2
Total number of studies that measured the specified subdomain.
3
Number of times the specified subdomain was measured across studies.
4
Number of observations for each of the outcomes (references).