Table 4.
Change scores in cognitive functions measures of both groups.
| Learning therapy | Wait list control | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Effect size (η2) | p-value | Adjusted p-value | Results of ANCOVA | |
| Executive functions | ||||||||
| LFT (number) | 0.81 | (1.82) | 0.69 | (2.21) | 0.00 | 0.607 | 0.759 | ns |
| CFT (number) | 0.66 | (2.59) | 0.03 | (2.79) | 0.01 | 0.396 | 0.566 | ns |
| rST (number) | 3.22 | (1.90) | 1.59 | (2.53) | 0.09 | 0.009 | 0.015 | LT > WL |
| ST (number) | 3.88 | (3.44) | 1.22 | (3.90) | 0.11 | 0.005 | 0.013 | LT > WL |
| Episodic memory | ||||||||
| LM (score) | 4.59 | (2.75) | 2.47 | (2.30) | 0.12 | 0.003 | 0.015 | LT > WL |
| FSN (score) | 0.38 | (1.79) | 0.34 | (1.81) | 0.00 | 0.650 | 0.650 | ns |
| Short-term memory | ||||||||
| DS-F (score) | (0.16) | (1.05) | (0.22) | (0.83) | 0.01 | 0.457 | 0.784 | ns |
| Working memory | ||||||||
| DS-B (score) | (0.13) | (0.75) | (0.25) | (1.34) | 0.00 | 0.862 | 0.781 | ns |
| Attention | ||||||||
| D-CAT (number) | 2.09 | (2.99) | (0.59) | (3.15) | 0.14 | 0.001 | 0.010 | LT > WL |
| Processing speed | ||||||||
| Cd (number) | 5.00 | (4.31) | 1.13 | (4.77) | 0.13 | 0.003 | 0.015 | LT > WL |
| SS (number) | 3.47 | (2.98) | 1.81 | (2.60) | 0.10 | 0.007 | 0.014 | LT > WL |
| Verbal ability | ||||||||
| JART (score) | 0.38 | (1.50) | 0.25 | (1.30) | 0.00 | 0.622 | 0.691 | ns |
Change scores were calculated by subtracting the pre-cognitive measure score from the post-cognitive measure score. We conducted analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for the change scores in each of cognitive tests. In the ANCOVA, pre-training scores in each cognitive test, sex and age were the covariates. Significance was inferred for p < 0.05. The p values were adjusted using FDR method. Moreover, this report describes eta square (η2) as an index of effect size. As a descriptive index of strength of association between an experimental factor (main effect or interaction effect) and a dependent variable, η2 is defined as the proportion of total variation attributable to the factor, and it ranges in value from 0 to 1. η2 ≥ 0.01 is regarded as a small effect, η2 ≥ 0.06 as a medium effect, and η2 ≥ 0.14 as a large effect. LT, learning therapy; WL, waiting list control group; SD, standard deviation. Executive functions were measured using the Stroop Test (ST) and Verbal fluency task (VFT). Episodic Memory was measured using Logical Memory (LM) and First and Second Names (FSN). Short-term memory was measured using Digit Span Forward (DS-F). Working memory was measured using Digit span Backward (DS-B). Attention was measured using the Digit Cancellation Task (D-CAT). Processing speed was measured using Digit Symbol Coding (Cd) and Symbol Search (SS). Reading ability was measured using the Japanese Reading Test (JART).