Table 2.
Biomarkers for ex vivo diagnostics of macrophage immune responses
| Marker | Type of biomarker | Induced by (type of response) | Role in inflammation or tissue remodeling | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Applied by us | ||||
| TNF-α | cytokine | IFN-γ, LPS (M1) | stimulation of production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, induction of endothelial dysfunction | [113, 114] |
| CCL18 | cytokine | IL-4 (M2) | directing the migration of regulatory T cells, regulation of angiogenesis, hematopoiesis | [115, 116] |
| CD206 | SR | IL-4 (M2) | phagocytosis of pathogenic microorganisms, internalization of lysosomal hydrolases, neutrophil-derived myeloperoxidase, activation of anti-inflammatory functions, involved in antigen presentation for T cells | [117, 118, 119] |
| Stabilin-1 | SR | IL-4 + dexamethasone (M2) | silent clearance of unwanted-self components (modified lipoproteins, SPARC, apoptotic bodies) | [31, 120] |
| Planned | ||||
| IL-1ß | cytokine | IFN-γ, LPS (M1) | induces pro-inflammatory state and endothelial dysfunction | [121] |
| IL-1Ra | cytokine | IL-4 (M2) | natural inhibitor of IL-1ß, reduces systemic inflammation | [122] |
| IL-6 | cytokine | IFN-γ, LPS (M1), immune complex + Toll-like receptor ligands (M2b) | induces production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and also anti-inflammatory cytokines, profibrogenic cytokine, angiogenesis | [123, 124] |
| IL-8 | cytokine | IFN-γ, LPS (M1) | promotor of angiogenesis, activates neutrophil granulocytes, chemotactic for migratory immune cells | [1, 125] |
| YKL-40 | cytokine | IFN-γ (M2) | induction of angiogenesis, stimulates bronchial smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, inhibitor of apoptosis | [2, 61, 126] |
| YKL-39 | cytokine | TGF-β (M2) | unknown | |