Table 1. Sample characteristics by depressive symptoms (CES-D< or ⩾16).
| CARDIA exam year 15 | CES-D<16 | CES-D⩾16 | P | Total | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (N=2538) | (N=471) | (N=3009)a | ||||
| Oxidative stress | ||||||
| F2-isoprostanes pg ml−1 | Median (IQR) | 58.2 (38.2–68.3) | 55.4 (41.9–75.0) | <0.001 | 50.9 (38.5–69.4) | |
| Carotenoids | ||||||
| Sum of five carotenoids (t-scores)b | Median (IQR) | 252.0 (228.6–268.5) | 234.4 (221.3–252.4) | <0.001 | 243.4 (227.2–266.50) | |
| Zeaxanthin/lutein μg dl−1 | Median (IQR) | 25.9 (17.5–31.3) | 20.2 (15.6–27.6) | <0.001 | 23.1 (17.1–30.7) | |
| β-cryptoxanthin μg dl−1 | Median (IQR) | 12.1 (6.5–15.2) | 8.4 (5.8–12.9) | <0.001 | 9.6 (6.4–14.7) | |
| Lycopene μg dl−1 | Median (IQR) | 40.2 (27.3–50.4) | 35.0 (24.4–46.0) | <0.001 | 37.7 (26.9–49.7) | |
| α-carotene μg dl−1 | Median (IQR) | 5.9 (2.0–7.3) | 2.6 (1.3.1–4.9) | <0.001 | 3.7 (1.9–6.9) | |
| β-carotene μg dl−1 | Median (IQR) | 22.5 (9.5–16.4) | 12.1 (7.1–20.1) | <0.001 | 15.6 (9.1–26.4) | |
| Depressive symptoms | ||||||
| CES-D | Mean (s.d.) | 6.3 (4.2) | 22.8 (7.0) | 8.9 (7.7) | ||
| CES-D⩾16 | — | — | 15.7% | |||
| CES-D⩾16 and/or antidepressant use | — | — | 20.0% | |||
| Antidepressant users | 5.1% | 19.1% | <0.001 | 7.3% | ||
| N of times CES-D⩾16 | 0 | 75.4% | — | <0.001 | 63.9% | |
| over years 0, 10 and 15c | 1 | 19.3% | 29.0% | 20.8% | ||
| 2 | 5.3% | 35.0% | 9.8% | |||
| 3 | — | 36.0% | 5.5% | |||
| Sociodemographics | ||||||
| Age | Mean (s.d.) | 40.3 (3.6) | 40.1 (3.7) | 0.15 | 40.3 (3.6) | |
| Female | 52.4% | 63.9% | <0.001 | 54.2% | ||
| White | 58.3% | 37.2% | <0.001 | 55.0% | ||
| Education | <0.001 | |||||
| ⩽High school | 44.4% | 55.9% | 46.2% | |||
| (some) College | 43.6% | 33.3% | 42.0% | |||
| ⩾Master's degree | 11.9% | 10.9% | 11.8% | |||
| Health and lifestyle | ||||||
| N somatic diseasesd | Mean (s.d.) | 0.9 (1.1) | 1.4 (1.5) | <0.001 | 1.0 (1.2) | |
| Supplement userse | 61.4% | 62.2% | 0.74 | 61.5% | ||
| Diet quality scoref | Mean (s.d.) | 67 (11) | 63 (11) | <0.001 | 67 (11) | |
| Smoking | Non (never and former) | 81.8% | 65.7% | <0.001 | 79.3% | |
| Current | 18.2% | 34.3% | 20.7% | |||
| Alcohol | <0.001 | |||||
| ♂/♀ 0 units per week | 46.5% | 50.1% | 47.1% | |||
| ♂⩽14/♀⩽7 units per week | 42.0% | 33.3% | 40.7% | |||
| ♂>14/♀>7 units per week | 11.5% | 16.6% | 12.3% | |||
| BMI kg/m2 | Mean (s.d.) | 28.3 (6.0) | 29.7 (7.3) | <0.001 | 28.5 (6.2) | |
| Physical activity (exercise units) | Mean (s.d.) | 367 (290) | 281 (252) | <0.001 | 353 (286) | |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CARDIA, Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; IQR, interquartile range; N, number.
Year 15 N=3009 with valid CES-D score and valid F2-isoprostane (N=2974), at least one carotenoid value (N=2889), all five carotenoid values (N=2865).
Sum of standardized values (t-scores) of zeaxanthin/lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene.
Number of times CES-D⩾16 over assessments at CARDIA exam years 5, 10, 15.
Number or somatic diseases included in count: high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart problem, diabetes, hepatitis in the past year, kidney failure/dialysis/transplant in the past year, nephritis in the past year, other kidney disease in the past year, liver cirrhosis, other liver disease in the past year, gallstones in the past year, migraine in the past year, peripheral vascular disease, cancer (ever), thyroid disease (ever), ulcer in the past year, other digestive disease in the past year, gout in the past year, asthma in the past year, epilepsy with seizures in the past year, tuberculosis in the past year, emphysema in the past year, multiple sclerosis in the past year, stroke in the past year, chronic bronchitis in the past year, HIV (ever), blood clot (past year), other major disease, polycystic ovarian syndrome.
Use of a multivitamin, vitamin A, C, E, beta-carotene or an antioxidant combination.
Average score over CARDIA exam years 0, 7 and 20.