Table 1.
Characteristics of the included studies.
| Author | Publication year | Study location | Studying time | Age | Style | N1 | N2 | Cycloplegia | Adjustments | OR, 95% CI | Definitions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iyer et al. [7] | 2012 | Singapore | NA | 40.5 (6–72) m | Refractive error: myopia | 137 | 2502 | Yes | Adjusted for age, gender, total family income, father's and mother's education, height, parental myopia, reading words or picture books, and total time spent outdoors | 0.39 (0.20–0.76) | The definition of myopia was SER of at least −0.5 D |
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| Borchert et al. [10] | 2011 | USA | NA | 6 to 72 m | Refractive error: myopia | 378 | 9515 | Yes | No | 1.08 (0.74–1.56) | Myopia was defined as SER error ≤−1.00 D |
| NA | 6 to 72 m | Refractive error: hyperopia | 1788 | 6781 | Yes | No | 1.42 (1.20–1.68) | Hyperopia was defined as SER error ≥+2.00 D | |||
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| McKean-Cowdin et al. [15] | 2011 | USA | NA | 6 to 72 m | Refractive error: astigmatism | 859 | 7720 | Yes | Adjusted for age, race, and spherical equivalent of the right eye | 0.98 (0.65–1.47) | Astigmatism was defined using a threshold level of cylindrical refractive error in the right or left eye of ≥1.50 D expressed in positive correcting cylinder form |
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| Stone et al. [8] | 2006 | USA | NA | 8.7 ± 4.4 y | Refractive error: myopia | 63 | 279 | Yes | No | 0.34 (0.08–1.50) | Myopia was defined as a spherical equivalent refraction of ≤−0.5 D for the mean of both eyes |
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| Pai et al. [16] | 2012 | Australia | 2007–2009 | 6–72 m | Amblyopia | 27 | 1395 | Yes | Adjustments for age, gender, ethnicity, and SER | 1.41 (0.26–7.69) | Amblyopia was defined using the MEPEDS criteria and divided into unilateral and bilateral subtypes |
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| Chia et al. [17] | 2013 | Singapore | 2006–2009 | 30–72 m | Amblyopia | 20 | 1662 | Yes | No | 1.31 (0.08–22.08) | Unilateral amblyopia was defined as a 2-line difference between eyes with VA < 20/30 in the worse eye; bilateral amblyopia was defined as VA in both eyes < 20/40 |
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| Robaei et al. [18] | 2006 | Australia | 2003-2004 | 6 years old | Amblyopia | 32 | 1733 | Yes | No | 2.20 (1.00–5.00) | Amblyopia was initially defined as corrected VA less than 0.3 logMAR units in the affected eye not attributable to any underlying structural abnormality of the eye or visual pathway plus a difference of at least 2 logMAR lines between the 2 eyes |
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| Williams et al. [3] | 2008 | UK | 1998–2000 | NA | Amblyopia | 239 | 6696 | No | No | 1.40 (1.04–1.86) | Amblyopia was defined as those with a history of patching treatment and/or with an interocular difference in best acuity for each eye of 0.2 logMAR units where the worst-seeing eye had a best acuity of worse than 0.3 logMAR, and the eye looked normal on dilated funduscopy |
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| Ip et al. [19] | 2008 | Australia | NA | 6 years old | Refractive error: Hyperopia1 | 35 | 153 | Yes | No | 1.50 (1.04–2.30) | Hyperopia was defined as an SER of +0.50 D or greater and was stratified as mild or moderate |
| NA | 12 years old | Refractive error: Hyperopia2 | 22 | 282 | Yes | No | 1.40 (0.90–2.30) | Myopia was defined as an SER of −0.50 D or less | |||
m: months; y: years; N1: with refractive error or amblyopia; N2: without refractive error and amblyopia; EVA: Electronic Visual Acuity; SPEDS: the Sydney Paediatric Eye Disease Study; SER: spherical equivalent refraction; MEPEDS: Multiethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study; D: diopters; VA: visual acuity.