Table 1.
Global Strongyloides stercoralis prevalence distribution.
| NO. | Most Likely Infective Source | Climate Classification | Population Studied | SES | S. stercoralis Prevalence (%) | Type of Detection | Symptoms Diagnosed | Comments/Details | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | East Africa | Group A, C, B * | Immigrants (≥16) lived in the refugee camps, Melbourne community health center and clinic patients | Developing economy 1 ** | 11% (14/124) | Serology | Fever (34%), Stomach pain (30%), weight loss (25%), and diarrhea (13%) | Arrived to Australia, Melbourne between 1997–2000 | [4] |
| 2. | Cambodia | Group A | Immigrants and refugees (≥15), Melbourne community health center and clinic patients | Developing economy, 1 | 42% (97/230) | Serology | Not reported | Arrived to Australia, Melbourne between 1974–2002 | [4] |
| 3. | Laos | Group A | Immigrants (≥18) | N/a | 24% (22/93) | Serology | 75% (60/80) had previously worms, not known symptoms | Arrived to Australia, Melbourne between 1980–1989 | [31] |
| 4. | Brazil (North, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast, South) | Group A, C | General population | Developing economy, 3 | 5.5% 21.7% 29.2% |
Stool examination Serology (IFAT) Serology (ELISA) |
Not reported | Study conducted from 1990 to 2009 | [32] |
| 5. | Mexico, Honduras, Ethiopia, El Salvador, Zambia, Argentina, Congo, Cuba, Grenada, Guatemala, India, Kenya, Niger, Tanzania, Vietnam | Group A, C, B | HIV-positive immigrants (≥17) | Developing economy, 1,2,3 | 26% (33/128) | Serology | Weight loss (53%), diarrhea (48%), fatigue (42%) and abdominal pain (36%). | [5] | |
| 6. | Africa, Central/South America, Thailand, India, UAE | Group A, B, C | HIV-positive immigrants (≥18), Italian hospital patients | Developing economy, 1,2,3,4 | 11% (15/138) | Serology | Skin problems (16.7%), gastrointestinal symptoms (15%) respiratory problems (14%) | Study conducted from 2000 to 2009 | [6] |
| 7. | Sub-Saharan Africa | Group A, B, C | Immigrants, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Infectious disease clinic patients | Developing economy, 1 | 1.4% (2/145) 17.9% (32/179) |
Stool examination Serology | Not reported | Study conducted from 2003 to 2006 | [33] |
| 8. | China, southern Yunnan province *** | Group A | Local rural inhabitants, random population sample | Developing economy, 3 | 11.7% (21/180) | Stool examination | Not reported | [17] | |
| 9. | Northern Ghana | Group A | Local inhabitants, random population sample | Developing economy, 2 | 11.6% (2349/20250) | Stool examination | Not reported | Study conducted from 1995 to 1998 | [34] |
| 10. | Northern Thailand | Group A,C | Local inhabitants excluding pregnant, lactating or with heart diseases | Developing economy, 3 | 15.9% (114/697) | Stool examination | Study conducted from April 2004 to September 2004 | [35] | |
| 11. | Appalachia regions, Kentucky, US *** | Group C,D | Local inhabitants, clinic patients | Developed economy, 4 | 1.9% (7/378) | Serology | Not reported | All used outdoor toilet | [21] |
| 12. | Spain, Barcelona | Group C | Immigrants from endemic areas, few locals | Developed economy, 4 | 17.7% (33/190) 46% (33/71) |
Stool examination Serology | Gastrointestinal symptoms (64%), dermatologic symptoms (32%), neurologic symptoms (1%) | Study conducted from 2003 to 2012 | [19] |
| 13. | Cambodia | Group A | Refugees | Developing economy, 1 | 24.7% (40/162) 77.2% (125/162) |
Stool examination Serology | Not reported | Arrived to Canada between 1982 and 1983 | [36] |
| 14. | Spain, Valencia, Gandia *** | Group C | Local farm workers, random population sample from the tourist area | Developed economy, 4 | 12.4 % (31/250) | Stool examination (agar plate culture) | Gastrointestinal symptoms, skin symptoms (no predominance among the infected group) | No information obtained on travelling details | [37] |
| 15. | Africa | Group A, B, C | Sudan refugees Somali Bantu refugees | Developing economy, 1 | 46% (214/462) 23% (23/100) |
Serology Serology | Chronic abdominal pain (not associated with the infection prevalence) | Resettled in the US in previous 5 years | [38] |
| 16. | Jamaica | Group A | Clinical strongyloidiasis patients and controls (neighboring households) | Developing economy, 3 | 8.2% (17/207) 30% (62/207) |
Stool examination Serology | Not reported | [39] | |
| 17. | Far East and Southeast Asia | Group A, C, D | Former WWII Far East prisoners, diagnosed with strongyloidiasis and controls | Developing economy, 2,3 | 12% (248/2072) | Stool examination and serology | Larva currens rash (70%) | Study conducted from 1968 to 2002, Liverpool, UK | [40] |
| 18. | Sub-Saharan Africa, Maghreb and Latin America | Group A, B, C | Immigrants, strongyloidiasis patients | Developing economy, 2,3 | 90.4% (284/314) 22.9% (67/293) |
Serology Stool examination | Gastrointestinal symptoms (abdominal pain, diarrhea, pruritus | Study conducted from 2004 to 2012, Southern Spain | [18] |
| 19. | Africa, Eastern Europe, Southeast Asia, South America, the Caribbean, and the Middle East | Group A, B, C | Refugees | Developing economy, economy in transition, 1,2,3 | 39% (45/119) | Serology | Asymptomatic | Boston, Massachusetts | [8] |
| 20. | Southeast Asia (Kampuchea, Laos, Vietnam | Group A,C | Immigrants, random population sample | Developing economy, 2 | 64.7% (125/193) 25% |
Serology Stool examination | Not reported | Quebec, Canada | [41] |
| 21. | Spain, Mediterranean coast, | Group C | Strongyloidiasis patients (ex and current farm-workers and family members), local inhabitants | Developed economy 4 | 0.9% (152/16607) | Stool examination (agar plate culture) | Asymptomatic (77%); Gastrointestinal symptoms (11%); cutaneous symptoms (4%); respiratory symptoms (1%); mixture of all the symptoms (7%) | Study conducted from 1990 to 1997, none travelled to the endemic areas | [42] |
| 22. | Northeastern Thailand | Group A | Rural and urban population | Developing economy, 3 | 23.5% (289.8/1233) | Stool examination | Not reported | Study conducted from July to September 2002 | [43] |
| 23. | Australia, Northern territory *** | Group A | Royal Darwin Hospital patients | Developed economy, 4 | 33% (68/205) | Stool examination | Gastrointestinal symptoms (72%) | 12 month study | [20] |
| 24. | India, Assam | Group A,B, C | Local inhabitants, random population sample | Developing economy, 2 | 8.5 % (17/198) | Stool examination | Gastrointestinal, respiratory and cutaneous symptoms (29%) | Locals are mostly farm-workers | [44] |
| 25. | Malaysia | Group A | Orang Asli community | Developing economy, 3 | 0% (0/54) 31.5% (17/54) 5.6% (3/54) |
Stool examination Serology PCR | Not reported | [11] | |
| 26. | Palestine, Gaza Strip, Beit Lahia | Group B | Local inhabitants, random population sample, 3–18 years | N/a | 5.6% (90/1600) | Stool examination | Not reported | Agricultural region | [45] |
| 27. | Brazil, Bahia | Group A, C | AIDS Clinic patients, HIV positive and negative groups, random population sample | Developing economy, 3 | 1.05% (59/5608) | Stool examination | Gastrointestinal symptoms among HIV positive | Study conducted from 1997 to 1999 | [46] |
| 28. | Argentina (North) *** | Group C | Local patients at the hospital | Developing economy, 3 | 29.4% (67/228) | Stool examination | Not reported | [47] | |
| 29. | U.S. | Group B, C, D | Cancer treated patients | Developed economy, 4 | 0.25% (25/10000) | Stool examination | Fever (28%), gastrointestinal symptoms (68%), pruritic skin rash, | Cases between 1971 and 2003 22/25 are US residents | [48] |
| 30. | Northeast Thailand | Group A | Local rural inhabitants | Developing economy, 3 | 28.9% (96/332) 47.5% (57/120) | Stool examination Serology | Not reported | Study conducted between October–November 2000 | [49] |
| 31. | Africa (48%), Asia (34%), Caribbean (20%), South America (3%) | Group A, B, C | Immigrants from endemic countries, travelers, Hospital for Tropical Diseases patients | Developing economy, 1,2,3 | 53.1% (102/192) 94.6% (157/166) |
Stool examination Serology | Bowel upset, gastrointestinal symptoms, skin symptoms | Study conducted between 1991 and 2001, London | [50] |
| 32. | Bangladesh, Dhaka | Group A, C | Local inhabitants of a slum | Developing economy, 1 | 23.1% (34/147) 10.2% (15/147) 61.2% (90/147) |
Stool examination Stool examination (agar plate culture) Serology | Diarrhea (19%) | Study conducted from November 2009 to January 2010 | [51] |
| 33. | Nigeria, llorin | Group A | HIV clinics patients, HIV seropositive and seronegative patients | Developing economy, 2 | 12.2% (22/180) | Stool examination | Not reported | [52] | |
| 34. | Southeastern Brazil, Uberlandia | Group A, C | Elderly, randomly selected from nursing homes and non-institutionalised | Developing economy, 3 | 5% (10/200) | Stool examination | Asymptomatic | [53] | |
| 35. | Australia, Queensland, Doomadgee *** | Group B, C | Children in aboriginal communities | Developed economy, 4 | 27.5% (92/334) | Stool examination | Not reported | During the wet season | [23] |
| 36. | Northern Cambodia | Group A | Local inhabitants, random population sample | Developing economy, 1 | 44.7% (1071/2396) | Stool examination | Not reported | Farmers (48.5%), pupils (33%) | [54] |
| 37. | Kazakhstan *** | Group D | Adopted children, lived in orphanage | Economy in transition, 3 | 42.8% (3/7) | Serology | Not reported | Study in Belgium | [22] |
| 38. | USSR, North Caucasus *** | Group D | Local inhabitants, random population sample | Developing economy, 2 | 0.77% (89/11530) | Stool examination | Not reported | [55] | |
| 39. | Japan, Okinawa *** | Group B | Local hospital patients | Developed economy, 4 | 3.4% (113/3292) | Stool examination (agar plate culture) | Not reported | S. stercoralis is higher in B. hominis infected, the last is indicator for poor hygiene | [56] |
* Koppen climate classification major categories: Group A—tropical moist climate; Group B—subtropical, dry climate; Group C—subtropical, mediterranean, moist mid-latitude climates with mild winters; Group D—continental, moist mid-latitude climates with cold winters; Group E—polar climate; Group H—highland climate; ** Country’s income level categories: 1—low-income; 2—lower-middle-income; 3—upper-middle-income; 4—high-income; *** Strongyloidiasis cases in these countries are shown as a “star” sign on a map in Figure 1.