Table 3. Classification of breathlessness self-management interventions using evidence-based recommendations.

Types of breathlessness self-management programmes shown to be effective by research11		ATS guidance on support for dyspnoea crisis27
Structured education	Information about breathlessness and its management including the actions patients can take: breathing and coughing techniques; energy conservation; health lifestyle behaviour change to increase activity/exercise; smoking cessation; management of roles and relationships; strategies for coping.
Breathing techniques skill training	Inclusion of specific breathing techniques and opportunities for skill feedback and monitoring.	Breathing retraining including pursed lip breathing, slowed pattern of breathing, prolonged exhalation and posture modification.
Cognitive symptom management skill training	Coping training for symptoms, emotions and stress: therapeutic support; relaxation therapy.	Relaxation techniques, mindfulness meditation, guided imagery and distraction strategies (e.g., music, TV, reading by self or caregiver)
Goal setting and action planning	Using a short-term plan of action for exacerbations or panic breathing episodes and to reach goals.	Use of a written action plan that includes appropriate administration and dosing of medications and stepwise titration regimens
Problem-solving skills	Solution implementation and evaluation/monitoring of results; key messages and support for decision-making; skills of self-tailoring to facilitate adapting lifestyle to accommodate symptoms and to adopt health lifestyle change such as exercise: with or without surveillance; adherence measure.
Coaching in use of support services	Awareness of resources and navigating skills to gain access.
Partnership with healthcare providers	Ways to communicate effectively with providers.
Enhancement of self-efficacy	Teaching for performance mastery, modelling, re-interpretation of symptoms and social persuasion (peer support/modelling).
Other		• Basic facts about causes and triggers of dyspnoea crises. • How to identify signs and symptoms that are an indication of a dyspnoea crisis. • How to recognise and measure changes from baseline for both intensity of dyspnoea and an affective component (anxiety or distress). • Appropriate and individualised use of oxygen, ventilation and/or fans.