Table 3.
Adjusted differences in daily energy and nutrient intake at full-service restaurants by plain water and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption status, 2005–2012 NHANES.
| Independent Variable | Total Energy (kcal) (95% CI) | Added Sugar (g) (95% CI) | Saturated Fat (g) (95% CI) | Sodium (mg) (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sample size | 2900 | 2900 | 2900 | 2900 |
| Plain water and SSB intake status | ||||
| SSB consumption | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Plain water but no SSB consumption | −443.4 *** (−589.6, −297.3) | −58.2 *** (−64.2, −52.2) | −4.4 ** (−6.8, −2.0) | −616.8 *** (−946.8, −286.8) |
| No plain water or SSB consumption | −321.3 *** (−418.7, −224.0) | −53.3 *** (−58.4, −48.3) | −2.2 ** (−3.8, −0.6) | −380.5 ** (−600.2, −160.8) |
| Sex | ||||
| Male | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Female | −300.8 *** (−351.0, −250.6) | −6.0 *** (−8.3, −3.7) | −3.9 *** (−4.8, −3.0) | −581.3 *** (−691.0, −471.6) |
| Age group | ||||
| 18–34 years of age | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| 35–49 years of age | 46.2 (−34.3, 126.7) | 1.4 (−1.8, 4.6) | 1.0 (−0.4, 2.3) | 254.8 * (55.7, 453.8) |
| 50–64 years of age | −41.2 (−120.8, 38.5) | 2.0 (−2.2, 6.1) | −1.0 (−2.4, 0.3) | −6.3 (−171.8, 159.2) |
| 65 years of age and above | −131.8 * (−231.3, −32.2) | −2.6 (−7.0, 1.8) | −2.2 ** (−3.9, −0.6) | −162.5 (−357.8, 32.8) |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| White, non-Hispanic | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Black, non-Hispanic | −118.1 ** (−187.2, −49.0) | 2.2 (−1.5, 6.0) | −2.5 *** (−3.6, −1.3) | −197.3 * (−350.3, −44.2) |
| Other race/multi-race, non-Hispanic | −91.6 (−189.7, 6.5) | −7.3 ** (−11.8, −2.8) | −2.3 * (−4.1, −0.5) | 258.3 (−5.9, 522.5) |
| Hispanic | −90.8 * (−176.5, −5.1) | −5.6 * (−10.0, −1.1) | −2.7 *** (−4.1, −1.4) | −129.8 (−302.8, 43.2) |
| Education | ||||
| High school and below | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| College education and above | −11.7 (−77.7, 54.4) | −3.5 * (−6.8, −0.2) | 0.00 (−1.1, 1.1) | 1.4 (−134.0, 136.9) |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Divorced, separated, or widowed | 2.7 (−69.8, 75.2) | −1.5 (−5.7, 2.7) | 0.2 (−1.1, 1.5) | 47.0 (−128.2, 222.2) |
| Never married | 7.8 (−68.7, 84.2) | −0.3 (−3.9, 3.2) | −0.5 (−1.7, 0.8) | −6.2 (−167.8, 155.3) |
| Income to poverty ratio (IPR) | ||||
| IPR < 130% | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| 130% ≤ IPR < 300% | −35.8 (−138.6, 67.0) | −1.0 (−6.9, 4.8) | 0.1 (−1.4, 1.6) | −76.3 (−265.1, 112.4) |
| IPR ≥ 300% | −14.6 (−114.5, 85.4) | −4.0 (−9.2, 1.2) | 0.2 (−1.3, 1.7) | 16.5 (−177.7, 210.6) |
| Obesity | ||||
| Non-obese (BMI < 30) | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Obese (BMI ≥ 30) | 27.6 (−29.6, 84.9) | −1.7 (−4.8, 1.4) | 0.8 (−0.2, 1.8) | 128.6 (−3.1, 260.3) |
| Smoking | ||||
| Non-smoker | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Former or current smoker | 49.6 (−9.1, 108.3) | 1.2 (−1.6, 4.1) | 0.4 (−0.8, 1.5) | 88.8 (−32.9, 210.5) |
| Self-rated health | ||||
| Good or excellent health | −25.0 (−106.7, 56.7) | 3.0 (−0.2, 6.3) | −1.5 * (−2.9, −0.1) | −90.4 (−325.0, 144.2) |
| Fair or poor health | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Chronic condition | ||||
| Diabetes | −46.1 (−140.2, 48.0) | −1.3 (−6.1, 3.6) | −0.2 (−1.9, 1.5) | −131.7 (−337.8, 74.3) |
| Arthritis | 13.8 (−55.1, 82.8) | 1.8 (−0.6, 4.2) | 0.5 (−0.7, 1.7) | 86.8 (−66.6, 240.1) |
| Coronary artery disease | −108.0 * (−213.0, −2.9) | 2.3 (−5.1, 9.8) | −0.1 (−1.9, 1.8) | −211.6 (−477.0, 53.8) |
| Stroke | 97.1 (−201.2, 395.3) | −3.5 (−9.4, 2.4) | 0.9 (−3.6, 5.4) | 391.8 (−242.5, 1026.1) |
| Cancer | −79.1 (−160.7, 2.5) | −1.6 (−6.8, 3.5) | −1.3 (−2.7, 0.1) | −193.9 * (−357.3, −30.6) |
| Day of the week | ||||
| Weekday | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Weekend | 88.6 ** (38.2, 139.0) | 5.2 *** (3.2, 7.2) | 0.8 (−0.2, 1.8) | 51.1 (−62.5, 164.6) |
| Survey wave | ||||
| 2005–2006 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| 2007–2008 | 19.6 (−56.0, 95.2) | −2.7 (−6.6, 1.2) | 0.6 (−0.7, 2.0) | 62.7 (−81.5, 206.9) |
| 2009–2010 | −41.4 (−118.5, 35.7) | −1.4 (−5.7, 3.0) | −0.3 (−1.6, 1.0) | −53.8 (−197.4, 89.8) |
| 2011–2012 | 1.3 (−81.5, 84.1) | 0.7 (−3.6, 5.0) | −0.7 (−2.1, 0.7) | −68.8 (−237.2, 99.7) |
Notes: Linear regressions were performed to estimate the adjusted differences in daily energy and nutrient intake at full-service restaurants by plain water and SSB consumption status, accounting for the NHANES multi-wave sampling design. * 0.01 ≤ p < 0.05; ** 0.001 ≤ p < 0.01; and *** p < 0.001.