Table 2.

Selected overview of current TEHVs and scaffolds for TEHVs.

Technique	Additional detail	Material	Type of construct	Cell seeding	Study type	Reference
Decellularization	Hypotonic, SDS, EDTA, DNase, RNase	Porcine and ovine aortic roots	Whole valve	N/A	In vivo in abdominal aorta of pigs; in vivo in RVOT of juvenile sheep	48
Decellularization	Sodium deoxycholate, DNase, EDTA	Rat aortic roots	Whole valve	N/A	In vitro architecture characterization and reseeding in vivo implantation	49
Decellularization	Water lysis, Triton X-100; reseeded with cells or conjugated with CD133	Porcine pulmonary valves	Whole valve	N/A	In vivo implanation in sheep in pulmonary position	50
Decellularization	Hypotonic solution, Triton X-100, SLS; treated with PEG; fixed in glutaraldehyde and detoxified	Porcine aortic valves	Stented valve	N/A	Bioreactor	51
Decellularization	SDS, Triton X-100; coated with fibronectin and stromal cell-derived factor-1α	Ovine aortic valves	Whole valve	N/A	Implanted in sheep pulmonary position	52
Molding	Fibrinogen with cells casted into mold and polymerized with thrombin	Fibrin	Whole valve	Ovine carotid artery SMCs and fibroblasts; seeded endothelial cells after conditioning	Bioreactor conditioning for 28 days; implantation in ovine pulmonary position for 3 months	74
Molding	PHO casted onto aluminum valve cast	Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHO)	Whole valve	Initial seeding with ovine carotid artery vascular cells then with venous endothelial cells	Implanted into pulmonary position of lamb	85
Molding	Scaffold stitched to inner surface of stent wires	Polyglycolic-acid coated with poly-4-hydroxybutyrate	Self-expandable stented valve	Ovine amniotic fluid cells	Implanted into ovine pulmonary position in-utero	87
Electrospinning		Poly(ester urethane) urea (PEUU)	Tissue scaffold	N/A	Mechanical characterization	99
Electrospinning		Poly(glycerol sebacate):poly(caprolactone)	Tissue scaffold	Human VICs	In vitro characterization of scaffold	101
Electrospinning		Poly(ethyleneglycol) dimethacrylate-poly(lactic acid)	Whole valve	Porcine VICs and VECs	Bioreactor conditioning	104
3D bioprinting		Alginate/gelatin	Whole valve	Porcine aortic VICs and SMCs	Static culture	114
3D bioprinting		Poly(ethyleneglycol)-diacrylate	Whole valve	Porcine aortic VICs	Static culture	115
3D bioprinting		Methacrylated hyaluronic acid/methacrylated gelatin	Whole valve	Human aortic VICs	Static culture	116
Hybrid	Initially seeded with vascular cells then decellularized and reseeded with MSCs	Polyglycolic-acid coated with poly-4-hydroxybutyrate	Self-expandable stented valve	Ovine vascular cells, ovine MSCs	Bioreactor conditioning	119
Hybrid	Initially seeded with vascular cells then decellularized	Polyglycolic-acid coated with poly-4-hydroxybutyrate	Self-expandable stented valve	Human/ovine vascular cells	Bioreactor conditioning, in vivo implantation in non-human primate and ovine pulmonary position	120,121
Hybrid	Seeded construct conditioned in bioreactor first then decellularized	Fibrin	Tube-in-tube stented valve	Ovine determal fibroblasts	Bioreactor conditioning	122
Hybrid	Molded self-assembled sheets (8 layers)	Self-assembled fibroblast sheets	Whole valve	Human dermal fibroblasts	Bioreactor conditioning	123
Hybrid	Leaflets formed by self-assembled sheets cut and sutured onto stent	Self-assembled fibroblast sheets	Stented valve	Human dermal fibroblasts	Bioreactor conditioning	124
Hybrid	Incorporated PCL fibers into PEG hydrogels and seeded cellson top	Poly(caprolactone) and poly(ethyleneglycol)	Tissue scaffold	Porcine aortic VICs	In vitro characterization of scaffold	125
Hybrid	Immersed PGS/PCL fibers into Me-HA/Me-Gel solution and crosslinked; cells seeded on PGS/PCL and encapsulated in Me-HA/Me-Gel	Poly(glycerol sebacate)-poly(ε-caprolactone) and methacrylated hyaluronic acid/methacrylated gelatin	Tissue scaffold	Ovine mitral VICs	In vitro characterization of scaffold	126
In vivo engineering	PU mesh wrapped around silicone valve-shaped molds; tissue membrane act as leaflets	Polyurethane mesh, tissue membrane	Whole valve	N/A	In vitro characterization after in vivo synthesis in subcutaneous layer in rabbit	129
In vivo engineering		Silicone rod, polyurethane scaffold	Self-expandable stented valve	N/A	In vitro characterization after in vivo synthesis in subcutaneous layer in goat	131