Figure 2.

Potential probiotic abilities to reduce Campylobacter in the avian gut. (1) Probiotics produce acidic compounds (lactic acid), which could inhibit Campylobacter and reduce the gut luminal pH that could affect Campylobacter (Neal-McKinney et al., 2012). (2) Probiotics compete for nutrients with Campylobacter (Aho et al., 1992). (3) Probiotics produce bactericidal substances (bacteriocins, H₂O₂) that could kill Campylobacter (Messaoudi et al., 2012a). (4) Probiotics strengthen tight junctions of intestinal epithelium and prevent Campylobacter translocation (Messaoudi et al., 2012b). (5) Probiotics colonize intestinal epithelium and prevent adhesion and invasion of Campylobacter (Wine et al., 2009). (6) Probiotics bind Campylobacter (Nishiyama et al., 2014). (7) Probiotics alter the avian gut microbiota, which could affect Campylobacter colonization (Sanders, 2011). (8) Probiotics modulate the immune system, which acts against Campylobacter (Brisbin et al., 2011).