Table 2.

The Pinyin and Zhuyin graphemes used in the study, along with the foil phonemes assigned to each grapheme and the vowels added to create the Mandarin word stimuli.

	Grapheme		Corresponding phoneme(s)		Foil phoneme	Vowels added to create word stimuli
	Pinyin	Zhuyin	Mandarin	English		Vowel	Pinyin	Zhuyin
Congruent items	n	ㄋ	/n/	/n/	/d/	/ai/	ai	ㄞ
	s	ㄙ	/s/	/s/	/ɵ/	/au/	ao	ㄠ
	l	ㄌ	/l/	/l/	/d/	/iε/	ie
	m	ㄇ	/m/	/m/	/ɵ/	/iou/	iu
Incongruent items	z	ㄗ	/ts/	/z/	/z/	/ai/	ai	ㄞ
	c	ㄘ	/tsh/	/k/, /s/	/k/	/au/	ao	ㄠ
	q	ㄑ	/tɕh/	/k/	/k/	/iε/	ie
	x	ㄒ	/ɕ/	/z/, /ks/	/z/	/iou/	iu