Table 2. Descriptions of the behavioural measures that were recorded for captive giant panda mother-cub dyads in this study.

Behaviour	Description
Grooming cub	Mother licks any part of cub’s body, other than the anogenital area, and/or bites the cub lightly and repetitively, using incisors, anywhere on its body.
Nursing cub	Mother is alert or relaxed while cub suckles from nipples. This behaviour takes precedence over all other behaviours (e.g., licking cub anogenital).
Lick cub anogenital	Mother licks the cub’s anogenital area.
Holding cub	Mother uses any part of her body (paw, mouth, foreleg) to hold/support the cub on her body. At least 50% of the cub’s body must be supported on some part of the mother’s body.
Other maternal	Mother performs any other behaviour involving the cub that is not described above (e.g., olfactory investigation of cub, repositioning cub).
Cub vocal	Cub makes any type of vocalisation. May range from low-pitched throaty sound to high-pitched open-mouthed call.