Table 1. Effects of tocopherol treatment in experimental cancer models.

Type of Cancer	Treatment	Experimental Model	Effects	Ref
Prostate Cancer	γ-T	TRAP rats	↓Adenocarcinoma	[44]
			↑Apoptosis
	γ-TmT	TRAMP mice	↓Tumor incidence, PIN	[45]
			↑Nrf2, HMOX1, GPx, SOD
	γ-TmT	TRAMP mice	↓Tumor incidence, Nrf2 methylation	[47]
			↑Nrf2
	γ-TmT	LNCaP cells	↑Apoptosis	[48]
		LNCaP xenograft	↓Tumor growth
	δ-T	LNCaP, VCaP cells	↓AR activity, PSA	[49]
			↑Apoptosis
		LNCaP xenograft	↓Tumor growth
	γ-T	LNCaP xenograft	↓Tumor growth	[52]
	γ-T + MSA	22Rv1 xenograft	↓Tumor growth, Ki67	[53]
			↑Bax, Bad, apoptosis
	γ-T	PC-3 cells	↓Cell growth	[54]
			↑PPARγ, 15-S-HETE
	α-TOS	PC-3 cells	↓Autophagy	[55]
	α-TOS+VK3+ascorbate	PC-3 xenograft	↓Tumor growth
	α-T, γ-T	LNCaP, PC-3 cells	↓p-Akt	[57]
			↑PHLPP1
Breast Cancer	γ-TmT	NMU-treated rats	↓Tumor growth, p-Akt, ERα	[56]
			↑PPARγ
	δ-T, γ-T	NMU-treated rats	↓Tumor growth, p-Akt, ERα	[9]
			↑PPARγ, Nrf2, p21, p27, c-caspase-3
	γ-TmT	ACI rat early hyperplasia	↓8-oxo-dG, 8-isoprostane, nitrotyrosine	[58]
			↑Nrf2, GPx, catalase, SOD
	γ-TmT	ACI rat hyperplasia	↓8-isoprostane, PGE2, COX2, ERα	[59]
			↑Nrf2, PPARγ
	γ-TmT	ACI rats	↓Tumor growth, PCNA	[8]
			↑CYP1A1, Nrf2, PPARγ
	α-TEA + trastuzumab	MDA-MB-453 xenograft	↑Tumor regression, apoptosis	[60]
	α-TEA + MEK/mTOR inhibitors	MCF-7, HCC-1954 cells	↓p-Akt, p-Erk, p-mTOR, IRS-1	[61]
			↑Apoptosis
	α-TEA	MCF-7, HCC-1954 cells	↓c-FLIP	[62]
			↑TRAIL, DR5, apoptosis
	Mito-ChM	9 breast cancer cell lines	↓Cell growth	[63]
		MDA-MB-231 xenograft	↓Tumor growth
	TGPS	MCF-7, MDA-MB-231cells	↓p-Akt, Bcl2	[65]
			↑G1/S arrest, apoptosis
	ESeroS-GS	MDA-MB-231 cells	↓Cell growth, migration, invasion	[66]
Colon Cancer	γ-TmT	AOM + DSS-treated mice	↓Inflammation, adenocarcinoma	[7]
	γ-T	AOM + DSS-treated mice	↓Inflammation, tumor multiplicity	[67]
	α-TOA	DMH-treated rats	↓Aberrant crypt foci, COX2	[68]
	γ-T, δ-T, TP, TQ	HCT116, HT29 cells	↓Cell growth, colony formation	[69]
			↑Apoptosis
	γ-T + lovastatin	HT29 cells	↑c-caspase-3, apoptosis	[70]
Lung Cancer	γ-TmT	CL-13 tumors A/J mice	↓Tumor growth	[71]
	γ-TmT	NNK + B[a]P-treated mice	↓Tumor multiplicity, tumor growth	[72]
		H1299 xenograft	↓Tumor growth
	γ-T, δ-T	H1299 xenograft	↓Tumor growth, 8-oxo-dG, γ-H2AX	[73]
			↑c-caspase-3
Other Cancers
Gastric	α-TOS	SGC-7901 cells	↓NFκB, Bcl2 family proteins	[74]
			↑c-caspase-3, 9
Leukemia	α-TOS	APL mice	↓Leukemia, MRC complex I	[75]
			↑ROS, caspases, apoptosis
Esophageal	Vitamin E + selenium	NMBA-treated rats	↓Tumor growth, NFκB, proliferation	[76]
Skin	α-T + vitamin C + ferulic acid	UVB-treated SKH-1 mice	↓Tumor growth, tumor multiplicity	[77]

Abbreviations: γ-TmT, a natural tocopherol mixture rich in γ-T; T, tocopherol; MSA, methaneseleninic acid; α-TOS, α-tocopheryl succinate; VK3, vitamin K3; α-TEA, α-tocopheryl acetic acid; Mito-ChM, Mito-chromanol; TRAP, transgenic rat for adenocarcinoma of prostate; TRAMP, the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate; NMU, N-methyl-N-nitrosourea; ACI, August Copenhagen Irish; AOM, azoxymethane; DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; DMH, 1,2-dimethylhydrazine; NNK, 4-(methylnitrosoamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone; B[a]P, benzo[a]pyrene; TGPS, _D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate; ESeroSGS, γ-L-glutamyl-S-[2-[[[3,4- dihydro-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2-(4,8,12-trimethyltridecyl)-2H-1-benzopyran-6-yl]oxy] carbonyl]-3-[[2-(1H-indol-3-yl) ethyl] amino]-3-oxopropyl]-L-cysteinylglycine sodium salt; TP, tocopherol phosphates; TQ, tocopherol quinones; NMBA, N-nitrosomethylbenzylamine.