Table 1. Sample characteristics of 18,173 adults residing in neighborhoods (n = 211) in the four largest cities in the Netherlands in 2008 and their associationsb with psychological distress.
| Neighborhood level | Mean | SD | Min. | Max. | ||
| Neighborhood deprivation | 0.46 | 1.69 | -2.95 | 5.24 | ||
| Neighborhood social cohesion | -0.20 | 0.19 | -0.70 | 0.24 | ||
| Individual level | Mean | SD | Min. | Max. | ||
| Psychological distress | Weighteda | 17.16 | 6.97 | 10 | 50 | |
| Psychological distress | Unweighted | 17.15 | 6.99 | 10 | 50 | |
| Weighteda | Un-weighted | |||||
| Multilevel regression resultsf | percent | percent | βc | (95%CI) | ||
| Socioeconomic factors | ||||||
| Education | Primary school | 11.8% | 15.0% | 1.56 | (1.22 to 1.89) | |
| Lower general secondary education | 25.3% | 28.7% | 0.39 | (0.13 to 0.66) | ||
| Higher general secondary education | 25.7% | 24.2% | 0.14 | (-0.11 to 0.40) | ||
| College, university | 37.1% | 32.1% | ref. | |||
| Employment status | Student | 9.1% | 9.0% | -0.16 | (-0.55 to 0.23) | |
| Housewife, houseman | 6.7% | 8.5% | 0.66 | (0.26 to 1.07) | ||
| Recipients of benefitsd | 10.1% | 10.2% | 5.59 | (5.24 to 5.94) | ||
| (Early) retired | 12.9% | 19.0% | 0.95 | (0.53 to 1.37) | ||
| (Self-)employed | 61.3% | 53.3% | ref. | |||
| Financial deprivation | Great, some financial difficulty | 28.1% | 26.3% | 3.38 | (3.16 to 3.61) | |
| (Almost) no financial difficulty | 71.9% | 73.7% | ref. | |||
| Socio-demographic factors | ||||||
| Gender | Man | 48.6% | 43.8% | -1.50 | (-1.69 to -1.30) | |
| Woman | 51.4% | 56.2% | ref. | |||
| Age | 16–34 years | 34.8% | 30.7% | 1.22 | (0.72 to 1.71) | |
| 35–54 years | 37.4% | 30.8% | 1.21 | (0.76 to 1.65) | ||
| 55–64 years | 13.7% | 16.6% | -0.43 | (-0.83 to -0.04) | ||
| ≥ 65 years | 14.1% | 21.9% | ref. | |||
| Ethnic background | First generation non-Western | 18.2% | 16.7% | 1.00 | (0.71 to 1.28) | |
| Second generation non-Western | 5.1% | 4.5% | 0.92 | (0.43 to 1.40) | ||
| Western | 11.5% | 10.8% | 0.53 | (0.23 to 0.83) | ||
| Native Dutch | 65.2% | 68.0% | ref. | |||
| Marital status | Widow, widower | 4.8% | 7.7% | 1.36 | (0.97 to 1.75) | |
| Divorced | 8.4% | 8.8% | 1.25 | (0.91 to 1.60) | ||
| Unmarried, never been married | 30.2% | 26.8% | 0.72 | (0.47 to 0.97) | ||
| Married, living together | 56.6% | 56.6% | ref. | |||
| Years of residence in place | 0–5 years | 17.3% | 15.6% | ref. | ||
| 6–15 years | 21.0% | 18.2% | 0.15 | (-0.17 to 0.48) | ||
| 16–25 years | 17.8% | 16.2% | 0.12 | (-0.22 to 0.46) | ||
| ≥ 26 years | 43.9% | 50.0% | 0.42 | (0.09 to 0.74) | ||
| Neighborhood factors | ||||||
| Neighborhood deprivatione | 0.07 | (-0.04 to 0.19) | ||||
| Neighborhood social cohesione | Low cohesion | 0.26 | (0.04 to 0.49) | |||
| High cohesion | ref. | |||||
CI = confidence interval.
a Calculated using SPSS Complex Samples, weighted for gender, age and city district.
b These results are based on multilevel regression analysis.
c Bold values are significant (p<0.05). Betas represent difference in mean psychological distress as compared to the reference category.
d Recipients of disability, social assistance or unemployment benefits.
e Neighborhood deprivation is in z-score units (per 1 SD increase). Neighborhood social cohesion is dichotomized at the mean into high and low social cohesion.
f Intraclass correlation (%): 0.15.