Table 2.

Main mechanisms of neurotoxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in in vitro studies.

cell types	mechanisms of neurotoxicity	references
BV2	OS (ROS, H2O2 elevated)	[19–20]
primary hippocampal neurons	multiple mechanisms (disrupted glutamate metabolism and dysregulated levels of NMDARs)	[56]
primary hippocampal neurons	apoptosis mediated by mitochondria- and endoplasmic reticulum-pathways	[35]
primary astrocytes	direct impairment of mitochondria and ROS	[38]
D384 and SH-SY5Y	direct impairment of mitochondria and cell membrane	[39]
SH-SY5Y	direct impairment of microtubules and cell morphology	[40]
SH-SY5Y	multiple mechanisms (changed cell cycle, apoptosis, and DNA damage)	[53]
C6 and U373	OS and impairment of mitochondria	[48]
C6 and U373	multiple mechanisms (inhibited cell proliferation, morphological change and apoptosis)	[52]
N9	apoptosis	[36]
U87	apoptosis	[37]
PC12	multiple mechanisms (OS and apoptosis)	[51]
PC12	other mechanisms (signaling pathway activated and arrested cell cycle)	[63]