Table 1.

Common deficiencies in pregnancy.

Deficiency	Associated effects	Treatment
Vitamin D deficiency	Myriad potential sequelae (see Table 2), for example, increased risk for decreased bone mass, respiratory issues, short-sightedness, and crooked teeth in offspring	Assessment of maternal serum levels in preconception period and supplementation as necessary-seasonal adjustments may be required [78]
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) deficiency	Preterm labour and postpartum depression in mothers Central nervous system disturbance, poor sleep pattern, lower IQ, and impaired blood pressure control later in life in offspring	Distilled cod liver oil supplement prior to and throughout pregnancy [79]
Magnesium deficiency	Potential determinant of adverse gestational outcomes [80, 81]	Supplementation in preconception period Education about foods high in magnesium
Compromised microbiome environment	Preterm labour [82] Serious bacterial infection in first 3 months of life in offspring [83] and potential long-term pediatric complications [84]	Avoidance of unnecessary antibiotics Good quality probiotic Fermented foods and drink in preconception and prenatal period