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. 2016 Jun 14;7:230. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00230

Table 1.

Arrhythmogenic mechanisms in the GI and cardiovascular systems can be divided into non-reentrant and reentrant activity.

Classification Mechanism Sub-types Clinical relevance References
Non-reentrant Enhanced pacemaker activity GI: Gastroparesis, intestinal infection, inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction Der et al., 2000; O'Grady et al., 2011, 2012; Scheffer and Smout, 2011; Wu et al., 2013
Cardiac: increased sympathetic tone, hypovolaemia, ischaemia, electrolyte disturbances Jalife et al., 2009; Tse, 2015
Triggered activity Second potentials (GI) Tachygastria Daniel and Chapman, 1963; Suzuki and Hirst, 1999; Lammers and Slack, 2001; Qian et al., 2003; Lammers et al., 2008
Early afterdepolarizations (cardiac) Long QT syndromes, heart failure Weiss et al., 2010; Maruyama et al., 2011
Delayed afterdepolarizations (cardiac) Ca2+ overload Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), heart failure Priori et al., 2001; Nam et al., 2005
Reentrant Obstacle Anatomical (GI and cardiac) GI: circumferential reentry Sinha et al., 2002; Angeli et al., 2013
Cardiac: AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, AV reentrant tachycardia and pre-excitation syndromes, post-myocardial infarction, fibrosis in cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, cardio-metabolic disorders Wong et al., 2013; Vassiliou et al., 2014; Baksi et al., 2015; Tse et al., 2015a,b; Tse et al., 2016a
Functional (GI and cardiac) GI: double-loop Gullikson et al., 1980; Stoddard et al., 1981; Kim et al., 1987; Lammers et al., 2012; Angeli et al., 2013
Cardiac: spiral and scroll wave, figure-of-eight, torsade de pointes Allessie et al., 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1989; Smeets et al., 1986; Rensma et al., 1988
No obstacle Reflection (cardiac) Ischaemia Antzelevitch et al., 1980; Antzelevitch and Moe, 1981; Rozanski et al., 1984; Lukas and Antzelevitch, 1989; Auerbach et al., 2011; Tung, 2011
Phase 2 (cardiac) Ischaemia, Ca2+ overload, Brugada syndrome Kuo et al., 1983; Di Diego and Antzelevitch, 1993; Lukas and Antzelevitch, 1996; Shimizu et al., 2005