Fig. 1.

a Cytotoxicity of VYE in RAW 264.7 macrophages and the suppressive effect of VYE on (b) NO secretion and (c–e) TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β cytokine production upon LPS stimulation. RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with VYE for 1 h prior to incubation with LPS for 24 h. Cytotoxicity was determined by CCK assay. NO content in the conditioned medium was determined using Griess reagent. TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β levels in the medium, as measured by ELISA. As a control, cells were incubated with vehicle alone. Data represent the means ± SE of three independent experiments. ** p < 0.001 compared to the LPS-stimulated value