Table 1.

Different Models of Co‐creation

				Key Stakeholders
	Parent	Driving		in the Co‐creation
Model	Discipline	Principles	Goal	Process
1. Value co‐creation30, 31	Business and management	People are naturally creative and seek to generate value for themselves and others. Value is created by providing platforms that allow stakeholders to interact and share their experiences. Value is subjective (ie, it depends on individuals’ experience of what is created) and takes many forms.	Developing long‐term stakeholder partnerships Building “ecosystems of capabilities” across private, public, and social sectors Increasing creativity, productivity, and growth Improving the value of co‐created products and services	Customers, staff, suppliers, government, partner organizations, funders, end users, citizens
2. Experience‐based co‐design32	Interdisciplinary (phenomenology, design science, management)	The patient experience is the starting point for redesigning a health service. Patients and staff can work together on the redesign process.	Improved patient experience of health services	Patients, staff, facilitators
3. Technology co‐design33, 34	Computer science	The starting point for technology design is the intended users’ capabilities and what matters to them.	Technologies that are acceptable, fit for purpose, and which support effective and efficient work processes	Technology users and carers, technology designers, support staff
		Technologies are never “plug and play”; helpdesk and service support must be designed in parallel with the technology itself.
4. Community‐based participatory research35, 36	Development studies	Power imbalances between researchers and community members must be recognized and addressed. Sustainable change depends on mutual trust, built over time through shared endeavor.	Local learning and change that reduce inequalities Generalizable principles about effective partnerships	Vulnerable communities, advocates, researchers