Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and rates of Grade 5 and 9 risk factors and risk-based protective factors, at-risk groups, and violent offending in Grade 11 and young adulthood (n = 437).
| Grad e 5 |
Grad e 9 |
||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||||||
| No. of scal e item s |
Respons e options |
Cronbach ’s alpha (G5, G9) |
Low (n) |
Low (%) |
Hig h (n) |
Hig h (%) |
Low (n) |
Low (%) |
Hig h (n) |
Hig h (%) |
|
|
Individual
factors |
|||||||||||
| Belief in the moral order (e.g., I think it is okay to take something without asking if you can get away with it) |
4 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.56, .69 | 267 | 61.1 0 |
170 | 38.9 0 |
261 | 59.7 3 |
176 | 40.2 7 |
| Religiosity^
(e.g., How often do you attend religious services or activities?) |
2 | 1-4 (never to about once a week or more) |
n/a, .83 | 303 | 69.3 4 |
134 | 30.6 6 |
232 | 53.0 9 |
205 | 46.9 1 |
| Interaction with prosocial peers (e.g., How many of your best friends have tried to do well in school?) |
2 | 0-4 (none of my friends to 4 or more of my friends) |
.30, .45 | 266 | 60.8 7 |
171 | 39.1 3 |
309 | 70.7 1 |
128 | 29.2 9 |
| Recognition for prosocial involvement (e.g., What are the chances you would be seen as cool if you worked hard at school?) |
2 | 1-5 (no to very good chance) |
.41, .38 | 320 | 73.2 3 |
117 | 26.7 7 |
236 | 54.0 0 |
201 | 46.0 0 |
| Poor academic performance (e.g., Are your school grades better than the grades/mark s of most students in your class?) |
2 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.44, .66 | 81 | 18.5 4 |
365 | 81.4 6 |
88 | 20.1 4 |
349 | 79.8 6 |
| Low commitment to school (e.g., How often do you feel that the schoolwork you are assigned is meaningful and important?) |
7 | 1-5 (never to almost always) |
.69, .78 | 73 | 16.7 0 |
364 | 83.3 0 |
144 | 32.9 5 |
293 | 67.0 5 |
| High impulsivity (e.g., It’s important to think before you act) |
3 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.53, .55 | 95 | 21.7 4 |
342 | 78.2 6 |
139 | 31.8 1 |
298 | 68.1 9 |
|
Family
factors |
|||||||||||
| Parent attachment (e.g., Do you feel very close to your father?) |
4 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.70, .79 | 290 | 66.3 6 |
147 | 33.6 4 |
316 | 72.3 1 |
121 | 27.6 9 |
| Opportunitie s for prosocial involvement (e.g., If I had a personal problem, I could ask my mum or dad for help) |
3 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.65, .77 | 299 | 68.4 2 |
138 | 31.5 8 |
371 | 92.0 6 |
32 | 7.94 |
| Recognition for prosocial involvement (e.g., My parents notice when I am doing a good job and let me know about it) |
4 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.63, .77 | 271 | 62.0 1 |
166 | 37.9 9 |
280 | 64.0 7 |
157 | 35.9 3 |
| Poor family management (e.g., The rules in my family are clear) |
9 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.70, .82 | 97 | 22.2 0 |
340 | 77.8 0 |
93 | 21.2 8 |
344 | 78.7 2 |
| Family conflict (e.g., People in my family have serious arguments (reverse coded)) |
3 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.80, .81 | 90 | 20.5 9 |
347 | 79.4 1 |
121 | 27.6 9 |
316 | 72.3 1 |
|
School
factors |
|||||||||||
| Opportunitie s for prosocial involvement (e.g., I have lots of chances to be part of class discussions or activities) |
5 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.49, | 328 | 75.0 6 |
109 | 24.9 4 |
320 | 73.2 3 |
117 | 26.7 7 |
| Recognition for prosocial involvement (e.g., The school lets my parents know when I have done something well) |
4 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.62, .71 | 258 | 59.0 4 |
179 | 40.9 6 |
312 | 71.4 0 |
125 | 28.6 0 |
|
Community
factors |
|||||||||||
| Opportunitie s for prosocial involvement (e.g., There are lots of adults in my neighbourho od I could talk to about something important) |
5 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.65, .66 | 322 | 73.6 8 |
115 | 26.3 2 |
298 | 68.1 9 |
139 | 31.8 1 |
| Recognition for prosocial involvement (e.g., There are people in my neighbourho od who are proud of me when I do something well) |
3 | 1-4 (definite ly no to definitel y yes) |
.85, .71 | 297 | 67.9 6 |
140 | 32.0 4 |
318 | 72.7 7 |
119 | 27.2 3 |
| Risk groups | |||||||||||
| Drug use (e.g., smoked cigarettes; had more than just a few sips of an alcoholic beverage (like beer, wine or liquor/spirits ); used marijuana (pot, weed, grass); used other drugs (LSD, cocaine, inhalants, stimulants, ecstasy, heroin, and other illegal drugs) and binge drinking) |
5 | 1-8 (never to 40 times or more) |
.30, .64 | 222 | 50.8 0 |
215 | 49.2 0 |
173 | 39.5 9 |
264 | 60.4 1 |
| Antisocial behaviour (e.g., How many times in the past year (12 months) have you carried a weapon?) |
2 | 1-8 (never to 40 times or more) |
.14, .64 | - | - | - | - | 373 | 85.3 5 |
64 | 14.6 5 |
| Family socio- economic status (e.g., Parent highest level of education and level of family income (e.g. less than $10,000)). |
2 | n/a | n/a | 340 | 81.3 4 |
78 | 18.6 6 |
- | - | - | - |
|
Violent
offending |
Low (n, %) | High (n, %) | |||||||||
| Grade 5 (e.g., Have you ever beat up someone so badly that they probably needed to see a doctor or nurse?) |
2 | 1-4 (never to 3 or more times in the last year) |
.42 | 396, 90.62 | 41, 9.38 | ||||||
| Grade 9 (e.g., How many times in the past year have you threatened someone with a weapon?) |
2 | 1-8 (never to 40 times or more) |
.70 | 397, 90.85 | 40, 9.15 | ||||||
| Grade 11 (e.g., How many times in the past year have you threatened someone with a weapon?) |
2 | 1-8 (never to 40 times or more) |
.79 | 407, 93.14 | 30, 6.86 | ||||||
| Young adulthood (e.g., How many times in the past year have you threatened someone with a weapon?) |
2 | 1-8 (never to 40 times or more) |
.67 | 317,72.54 | 120, 27.46 | ||||||
Note.
^
= Religiosity comprised 1 item at Grade 5, thus Cronbach’s alpha has not been calculated.