| Individual level |
Gender attitudes differ by biological sex. |
Girls, more commonly than boys, challenge gender inequalities. |
[46,48,50,57,60,61,82–84,92,100–102,104,115,117,121,124] |
|
|
Boys appear to face more social barriers than girls to challenge gender inequalities. |
[50,60,84,93,94,99,102,115,116,121,124] |
|
Gender attitudes intersect with the construction of norms about other social and cultural categories. |
Gender norms intersect with race/ethnicity norms and identities. |
[82,93,99,103] |
|
|
Young adolescents of immigrant background experience clashing cultural messages about gender norms. |
[46,60,79,84,93,99,100] |
|
|
Social class may influence the gendered opportunities available to young adolescents. |
[61,98,100,102,103,106,114] |
|
Pubertal onset brings new gender pressures and expectations. |
With the onset of puberty, boys are expected to prove masculine toughness and sexual prowess. |
[79,114,117] |
|
|
With the onset of puberty, girls are expected to deemphasize physical body changes, and are increasingly restricted. |
[79,82,100,117] |
| Interpersonal level |
Parents and other family members communicate gender norms overtly and covertly. |
Young adolescents learn about gender role expectations in the home. |
[60,106,111,114,115] |
|
|
Mothers appear to be especially important in teaching and enforcing stereotypical gender norms. |
[60,82,84,100,111,115] |
|
Parents strictly control and sanction their daughters. |
Tough parental control and restrictions for girls, often tied to concerns about female sexuality. |
[60,82,84,92,98,100,102,106,111,115,117,121] |
|
Peers are central in establishing and upholding gender norms. |
Male peer groups enforce competition, toughness and heterosexual prowess. |
[61,79,80,84,103,104,111,113,114,117,128] |
|
|
Boys who fail to achieve local masculinity standards are bullied and ridiculed by their peers. |
[48,61,71,79,80,83,84,93,101,105,111,113,114,117,124] |
|
|
Female peer groups enforce norms of beauty, appearance and heterosexual romance. |
[57,61,82,84,98,99,101,104,111] |
|
|
Peers police gender boundaries related to female sexuality. |
[94,98,99,101–103,113,114] |
|
|
Girls experience control and exclusion by male peers. |
[49,61,92,94,99,105,112,128] |
| Community/Societal level |
Schools communicate and uphold gender norms through rules, activities and teacher-student relationships. |
School cultures, traditions and rules contribute to the upholding of gender norms. |
[57,61,83,84,98,100,105,106,124] |
|
|
Schools appear to disproportionally favor boys’ activities and performances. |
[61,84,90,92,93,100,105] |
|
|
Teachers reinforce stereotypical gender norms. |
[60,79,80,83,90,94,98,104,105] |
|
Media appears to shape gender attitudes in various ways. |
Different media appear to influence young adolescent’s gender attitudes. |
[48,50,79,114,124] |
|
|
Gender attitudes are constructed through social media and sexting. |
[103,128] |
