Table 1.

Characteristics of the included studies.

First Author (Year)	Population	(NM/NC) 1	Training	Mindfulness Measure 2	Stimulus (Time) 3	Initial Pain Ratings 4	Stimulation Region
Gard (2012) [8]	Mindfulness Practitioners	NM = 17 NC = 17	Vispassana	FMI	Elec: 103+ V, 833 Hz (0.1 s)	I: ~4.6/10 U: ~4.4/10 A: ~3.1/10	Left lower arm
Grant (2011) [23]	Meditation Practitioners	NM = 13 NC = 13	Zen Mediation	Years of practice	Therm: Av. Zen 49.9 °C Av. Cntrl 47.9 °C (10 s)	I: 6–7/10	Lateral, posterior left calf
Lutz (2013) [9]	Meditation Practitioners	NM = 14 NC = 14	Nyingma, Kagyu	>10,000 h of training	Therm: Av. 48.1 °C (10 s)	P: 8/10	Inside of left forearm
Zeidan (2011) [11]	Healthy Controls	NC = 15	4 days of training	FMI	Therm: 49 °C (12 s)	I: 4.8/10 U: 4.8/10	Posterior right calf
Zeidan (2015) [12]	Healthy Controls	NC = 75	4 days of training	FMI	Therm: 49 °C (12 s)	I: 4.8/10 U: 5/10	Posterior right calf

¹ N_M = number of participants in mindfulness conditions; N_C = number of control participants. ² FMI = Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory. ³ Elec = electrical simulation; Therm = thermal stimulation. ⁴ Pain Ratings: I = intensity, U = unpleasantness; A = anticipation, P = general pain rating. Stimulation temperature was consistent across participants, or reported as an average (Av.). The study by Grant [23] reported average temperatures for experienced meditators (Av. Zen = average temperature used in meditator condition; Av. Cntrl = average temperature used in control condition). Pain ratings are for the mindfulness conditions and are the initial pain ratings obtained prior to neuroimaging.