Table 2.
Environmental risk factors and retinal microvasculature in early life
| Sample size and | Environmental | Arteriolar parameters β | Venular parameters β | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Study | Study design | response rate | Age, male % | factors | or mean, 95% CI | or mean, 95% CI | |
| 1 | Gopinath B | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 888 | 17 years | Yoghurt, serves/day: | 160.9 vs. 162.2 μm | 237.9 vs. 235.9 μm |
| (2014) | SCES | 49.4% | 1st vs. 3rd tertile | (P trend = 0.05) | (P trend = 0.04) | ||
| 2 | Poon M | Clinical study, cross‐sectional | 481 | mean age: | Vitamin D deficiency: | Calibre/tortuosity/length–diameter ratio/ | |
| (2013) | 14.9 years | branching angle/fractal dimension: | |||||
| 52% | n.s. | ||||||
| 3 | Gopinath B | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 2353 | 12 years | Carbohydrate intake: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2012) | SCES | 49.4% | 1st vs. 3rd tertile | Girls: | Boys: | ||
| 153.1 vs. 151.7 μm | 217.6 vs. 219.9 μm | ||||||
| (P trend = 0.03) | (P trend = 0.02) | ||||||
| Fractal dimension: | Fractal dimension: | ||||||
| Girls: | Boys and girls: | ||||||
| 1.461 vs. 1.465 | n.s. | ||||||
| (P trend = 0.003) | |||||||
| Total sugar intake: | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| 1st vs. 3rd tertile | Boys: | Boys and girls: | |||||
| 150.5 vs. 148.7 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P trend = 0.04) | Fractal dimension: | ||||||
| Fractal dimension: | Boys and girls: | ||||||
| Girls: | n.s. | ||||||
| 1.462 vs. 1.465 | |||||||
| (P trend = 0.002) | |||||||
| Total fibre intake: | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| 1st vs. 3rd tertile | Boys and girls: | Boys and girls: | |||||
| n.s. | n.s. | ||||||
| Mean dietary GI: | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| 1st vs. 3rd tertile | Girls: | Boys and girls: | |||||
| 153.5 vs. 151.7 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P trend = 0.03) | |||||||
| Mean dietary GL: | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| 1st vs. 3rd tertile | Girls: | Boys and girls: | |||||
| 153.5 vs. 151.9 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P trend = 0.05) | Fractal dimension: | ||||||
| Fractal dimension: | Boys and girls: | ||||||
| Girls: | n.s. | ||||||
| 1.461 vs. 1.464 | |||||||
| (P trend = 0.01) | |||||||
| 4 | Cheung N | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 823 | 12.8 years | Fibre/sugar/total fat/protein/energy intake: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2009) | SCORM | 52.5% | n.s. | n.s. | |||
| 5 | Islam M | Family‐based, cross‐sectional study | 751 | 9–14 years | Paternal SBP: | Optimality deviation: | |
| (2014) | 49.6% | 1st vs. 5th quintile | 115.1 vs. 145.7 μm (P trend = 0.032) | ||||
| each 10 mmHg ↑ | 0.0053 (0.0001, 0.0106) (P = 0.047) | ||||||
| Paternal DBP: | 115.5 vs. 145.4 (P trend = 0.010) | ||||||
| 1st vs. 5th quintile | 0.0109 (0.0025, 0.0193) (P = 0.011) | ||||||
| each 10 mmHg ↑ | AVR: | ||||||
| Maternal SBP: | 0.83 vs. 0.80 (P trend = 0.013) | ||||||
| 1st vs. 5th quintile | 0.82 vs. 0.80 (P trend = 0.008) | ||||||
| Maternal DBP: | −0.0102 (−0.0198, −0.00007) (P = 0.035) | ||||||
| 1st vs. 5th quintile | |||||||
| each 10 mmHg ↑ | |||||||
| 6 | Gopinath B | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1739 out of 2238 | 6 years | Parental HTN: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2011) | SCES | 77.7% | 50.4% | Yes vs. No | Girls: | Boys and girls: | |
| 161.6 vs. 165.9 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P = 0.0004) | |||||||
| Parental HTN: | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| Yes vs. No | Girls: | Boys and girls: | |||||
| 161.6 vs. 165.9 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P = 0.0004) | |||||||
| Maternal HTN: | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| Yes vs. No | Girls: | Boys and girls: | |||||
| 161.2 vs. 165.7 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P = 0.01) | |||||||
| 7 | Hanssen H | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 578 out of 792 | 11.1 years | Physical inactivity: | AVR: | |
| (2011) | JuvenTUM 3 | 73.0% | 41.5% | each 1 h/week ↑ | <0.001 (< 0.001, < 0.001) (P = 0.032) | ||
| (2008) | |||||||
| 8 | Gopinath B | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1765 out of 2238 | 6 years | Outdoor sporting activities: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2011) | SCES | 50.4% | Low vs. High | 162.5 vs. 164.7 μm | n.s. | ||
| Television viewing: | (P trend = 0.004) | ||||||
| 1st vs. 4th quartile | Calibre: | Calibre: | |||||
| 164.2 vs. 161.9 μm | n.s. | ||||||
| (P trend = 0.003) | |||||||
Abbreviation: 95% CI, 95% confidence interval; SD, standard deviation; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; AVR, arteriovenous ratio; SCES: Sydney Children Eye Study; SCORM: the Singapore Cohort Study of the Risk Factors of Myopia.