Table 3.
Elevated blood pressure and retinal vasculature in early life
| Study population | Sample size and | Arteriolar parameters β | Venular parameters β | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Study | and study design | response rate | Age, male % | Blood pressure | or mean, 95 % CI | or mean, 95 % CI | |
| 1 | Olta G | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 4007, 61.4% | 6.0 | per SDS ↓ | per SDS ↑ | |
| (2015) | Generation R | 50.2% | SBP: | 0.19 SDS ↑ (P < 0.05) | 0.05 SDS ↑ (P < 0.05) | ||
| DBP: | 0.13 SDS ↑ (P < 0.05) | n.s. | |||||
| Pulse pressure: | 0.10 SDS ↑ (P < 0.05) | 0.05 SDS ↑ (P < 0.05) | |||||
| Carotid femoral | n.s. | 0.04 SDS ↑ (P < 0.05) | |||||
| pulse wave | |||||||
| velocity: | |||||||
| 2 | Gopinath B | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1077 | 3–6 years | SBP: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2013) | SCES | 50.8% | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | −1.70 μm (P = 0.02) | n.s. | ||
| 3 | Zheng YF | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1035 twin pairs | 7–19 years | MAP: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2013) | The Guangzhou Twin Eye Study | (657 MZ, 378 DZ) | 51.8% | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | −1.48 μm (P < 0.005) | n.s. | |
| 4 | Tapp RJ | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1067 | 12 years | SBP at 9 years: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2013) | ALSPAC | 49% | each SD ↑ | −0.21 μm (−0.33, −0.09) | n.s. | ||
| DBP at 9 years: | (P < 0.001) | n.s. | |||||
| each SD ↑ | −0.16 μm (−0.27, −0.05) | Calibre: | |||||
| SBP at 11 years: | (P = 0.004) | n.s. | |||||
| each SD ↑ | Calibre: | n.s. | |||||
| DBP at 11 years: | −0.20 μm (−0.13, −0.08) | ||||||
| each SD ↑ | (P = 0.001) | ||||||
| −0.13 μm (−0.24, −0.02) | |||||||
| (P = 0.019) | |||||||
| 5 | Murgan I | Clinical research, cross‐sectional study | 121 | 16 years | Central SBP: | Calibre: | |
| (2013) | 56.2% | each 1 mm Hg ↑ | −0.096 (P = 0.023) | ||||
| 6 | Hanssen H | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 578 out of 792 | 11.1 | SBP: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2012) | JuvenTUM 3 | 73.0% | 41.5% | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | −1.34 μm (−2.61, −0.06) | n.s. | |
| DBP: | (P = 0.040) | n.s. | |||||
| each 10 mm Hg ↑ | −2.53 μm (−4.15, −0.92) | ||||||
| (P = 0.002) | |||||||
| 7 | Li LJ | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 385 | 4–5 years | SBP: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2011) | STARS | 50.7% | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | −2.00 μm (−3.61, −0.39) | 2.51 (0.35, 4.68) | ||
| DBP: | (P = 0.02) | (P = 0.02) | |||||
| each 10 mm Hg ↑ | n.s. | n.s. | |||||
| MABP: | −1.39 μm (−2.95, 0.17) | 2.15 (0.06, 4.24) | |||||
| each 10 mm Hg ↑ | (P = 0.08) | (P = 0.04) | |||||
| Hypertensive | 160.15 vs. 156.06 μm | n.s. | |||||
| stage: | (P = 0.02) | ||||||
| No vs. Yes | |||||||
| 8 | Owen CG | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 986 | 10–11 | DBP: | Tortuosity: | Tortuosity: |
| (2011) | CHASE | Years | each SD ↑ | 2.3% (0.1%, 4.6%) | n.s. | ||
| 46.9% | SD = 9.1 mm Hg | (P = 0.01) | |||||
| 9 | Kurniawan ED | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1174 | 10–14 years | SBP: | Fractal dimension: | Fractal dimension: |
| (2011) | SCORM | 49.1% | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | −0.74 (−1.37, −0.11) | n.s | ||
| DBP: | (P = 0.021) | ||||||
| each 10 mm Hg ↑ | n.s. | ||||||
| MABP: | −0.71 (−1.31, −0.10) | ||||||
| each 10 mm Hg ↑ | (P = 0.022) | ||||||
| 10 | Gopinath B | Australian adolescents | 2353 out of 3144 | 12.7 years | SBP: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2010) | SCES | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 75.3% | 50.4% | 1st vs. 4th quartile | 153.9 vs. 149.7 μm | n.s. |
| DBP: | (P trend < 0.0001) | n.s. | |||||
| 1st vs. 4th quartile | 153.0 vs. 149.4 μm | n.s. | |||||
| MABP: | (P trend < 0.0001) | n.s. | |||||
| 1st vs. 4th quartile | 153.4 vs. 149.6 μm | ||||||
| Hypertensive | (P trend < 0.0001) | ||||||
| stage: | 151.9 vs. 149.9 μm | ||||||
| No vs. Yes | (P = 0.002) | ||||||
| 11 | Sasongko MB | Clinic‐based, cross‐sectional study | 944 out of 1159 | 12–20 | SBP: | Length–diameter ratio: | Length–diameter ratio: |
| (2010) | SPDS | 81.4% | years | each SD ↑ | −10.0 (−16.3, −3.69) | n.s. | |
| with type 1 diabetes | 43.7% | (SD = 12 mm Hg) | (P = 0.003) | ||||
| 12 | Tapp RJ | Population‐based, cross‐sectional study | 166 children | 9 years | Heart rate: | Simple tortuosity: | Optimality deviance/ simple tortuosity/ bifurcation angle/ length–diameter ratio: |
| (2007) | ALSPAC | 40% | each 1 BPM ↑ | −0.190 | n.s. | ||
| (P = 0.019) | |||||||
| 13 | Mitchell P | School‐based, cross‐sectional study | 1572 Australian children | SCES: | SBP: | Calibre: | Calibre: |
| (2007) | SCES, SCORM | 380 Singapore | 6–8 years | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | SCES: −2.08 μm | SCES: −1.12 μm | |
| children | 50.8% | DBP: | (−2.79, −1.38) | (−2.00, −0.24) | |||
| SCORM: | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | (P < 0.0001) | (P = 0.013) | ||||
| 7–9 years | MABP: | SCORM: −1.43 μm | SCROM: n.s. | ||||
| 56.8% | each 10 mm Hg ↑ | (−2.59, −0.27) | SCES: n.s. | ||||
| (P = 0.016) | SCORM: n.s. | ||||||
| SCES: −1.46 | SCES: −0.99 | ||||||
| (−2.16, −0.78) | (−1.95, −0.04) | ||||||
| (P < 0.001) | (P = 0.041) | ||||||
| SCORM: −2.30 | SCORM: n.s. | ||||||
| (−4.00, −0.59) | |||||||
| (P = 0.008) | |||||||
| SCES: −2.00 | |||||||
| (−2.76, −1.24) | |||||||
| (P < 0.001) | |||||||
| SCORM: −2.45 | |||||||
| (−4.11, −0.79) | |||||||
| (P = 0.004) |
Abbreviation: 95% CI: 95% confidence interval; SD, standard deviation; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; MABP: mean arterial blood pressure; BPM, beats per minute; SCES, Sydney Children Eye Study; ALSPAC, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children; STARS, the Strabismus, Amblyopia and Refractive Error Study in Singapore Chinese Preschoolers; SCORM, the Singapore Cohort Study of the Risk Factors for Myopia; CHASE, the Child Heart and Health Study in England; SPDS, Sydney Pediatric Diabetes Study.