Table 2.

Major growth factors and hormones in the embryonic NSCs niche

Growth factor or Hormone	Location	Function	Ref
Growth hormone	Neocortex	Stimulates the differentiation and proliferation of cells	76
Cystatin-C	Neocortex	Promotes astrogenesis and suppresses oligodendrogenesis	77
Insulin Growth Factors	Neocortex	Promotes self-renewal of NSCs	78
TGFβ-1	Neocortex	Promotes astrocytosis	75
Ciliary neurotrophic factor	VZ	Enhances proliferation and survival of NSCs	79
Leukemia inhibitory factor	VZ	Enhances proliferation and survival of NSCs	80
Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF)-A & B	SVZ	Promotes oligodendrocytsis and astrocytosis	71
Bone morphogenetic proteins	SVZ	Promotes SVZ response to EGF	73
VEGF	RGC	Angiogenic and mitogenic factor	81
FGF	RGC	Promotes self-renewal and multipotency	82
Erythropoietin	Ganglionic eminences	Enhances neural progenitor cell production	78
BDNF1	Forebrain	Promotes NSC proliferation	83
EGF	Striatal primordial	Promotes NSC proliferation	68
Glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor	Ventral mesencephalon	Neurotrophic factor for NSC	82
Ghrelin	Spinal cord	Promotes NSC proliferation	84

¹brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Data derived from Ref ⁷⁰.