Table 2.

Growth factors after SCI.

Item	Detection timeframe	Roles	Reference
NGF and NT-3	Detected 6 h AI	Neuron survival and regeneration AI	[208]
BDNF	Detected 6 h AI, increases up to 6 weeks, and decreases 12 weeks AI	(i) M2 macrophage phenotype induction (ii) Production of several extracellular matrix proteins for tissue remodeling and repair, neurotrophic support, and axonal regeneration (iii) Increases growth, angiogenic, and axonal guidance factors	[125, 150, 209, 210]
aFGF	Detected 1 h AI, PL 5–7 days, and remains elevated up to 14–21 days AI	(i) Potent mitogenic and chemotactic agent for vascular endothelial cells, dermal fibroblasts, and epidermal keratinocytes (ii) Promotes Th2 cytokine and neurotrophic factor production and M2 response	[209, 211]
bFGF	Detected 1 h AI, PL at day 3, remains elevated 5–7 days, and returns to low levels 14–21 days AI	(i) Angiogenesis	[209]
TGF-β	Detected at 24 h AI	(i) Immunosuppressant (ii) Tissue stabilization and structural preservation (iii) Neural regeneration and repair	[212]

min: minutes; AI: after injury; PL: peak levels.