. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2017 Apr 1.

Published in final edited form as: IEEE Trans Nanobioscience. 2016 Mar 2;15(3):294–304. doi: 10.1109/TNB.2016.2527600

Table 1.

The mechanism of actions and limitations for various nanoparticle (NP)-based approaches for anti-biofilm activities.

		Types of NPs used	Mechanism of actions / advantages	Limitations
NPs as intrinsic antimicrobial agents		Silver NP [63, 64], Zinc oxide NP [71–76]	Generation of hydrogen peroxide and cell membrane damage. Antibacterial efficacy for broad spectrum of bacteria.	Toxicity at high concentration
NPs for controlled delivery of antimicrobial agents	Antibiotics delivery	Liposomes [84, 85, 87], Polymeric NP [89, 90], Lipid-polymer hybrid NP [92]	Delivery of antibiotics to the site of infection at a sustained and controlled manner. Protection of drugs from enzymatic inactivation.	Insufficient drug loading
	NO delivery	Silica NP [97], Silane hydrogel- based NP [99–101]	Interfere the process of DNA replication and respiration in bacteria. Antibacterial efficacy for broad spectrum of bacteria. Promote wound healing by angiogenesis and tissue remodeling.	Difficulty of controlling the release kinetics of physiologically optimal concentrations of NO in the wound bed
	Photosensitizer delivery	Porphyrin [109], Methylene blue [110], Rose bengals [111]	Triggers necrotic bacterial death by generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species to light exposure. Antibacterial efficacy for broad spectrum of bacteria.	Non-specific cytotoxic reactive oxygen species damage to host cells
Responsive NPs for anti-bacterial hyperthermia treatment	NIR light- triggered hyperthermia	Gold NP [112], Fe₃O₄ MNP [113], Graphene NP [114]	Triggers irreversible thermal damage to bacteria in response to NIR light illumination.	Non-specific thermal damage to host cells
Responsive NPs for anti-bacterial hyperthermia treatment	AMF-triggered hyperthermia	Fe₃O₄ MNP [119–121]	Triggers irreversible thermal damage to bacteria in response to high frequency AMF application.	Non-specific thermal damage to host cells
NPs for enhanced penetration to the biofilm matrix	Surface charge functionalization Surface coating with EPS degrading molecules	[127] [129]	Enhance the efficiency of nanoparticle transport to target bacterial cells by means of tuning surface charge and surface coating with EPS degrading molecules.