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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2017 Apr 1.
Published in final edited form as: IEEE Trans Nanobioscience. 2016 Mar 2;15(3):294–304. doi: 10.1109/TNB.2016.2527600

Table 1.

The mechanism of actions and limitations for various nanoparticle (NP)-based approaches for anti-biofilm activities.

Types of NPs used Mechanism of actions / advantages Limitations
NPs as intrinsic antimicrobial agents Silver NP [63, 64], Zinc oxide NP [7176]
  • Generation of hydrogen peroxide and cell membrane damage.

  • Antibacterial efficacy for broad spectrum of bacteria.

Toxicity at high concentration
NPs for controlled delivery of antimicrobial agents Antibiotics delivery Liposomes [84, 85, 87], Polymeric NP [89, 90], Lipid-polymer hybrid NP [92]
  • Delivery of antibiotics to the site of infection at a sustained and controlled manner.

  • Protection of drugs from enzymatic inactivation.

Insufficient drug loading
NO delivery Silica NP [97], Silane hydrogel- based NP [99101]
  • Interfere the process of DNA replication and respiration in bacteria.

  • Antibacterial efficacy for broad spectrum of bacteria.

  • Promote wound healing by angiogenesis and tissue remodeling.

Difficulty of controlling the release kinetics of physiologically optimal concentrations of NO in the wound bed
Photosensitizer delivery Porphyrin [109], Methylene blue [110], Rose bengals [111]
  • Triggers necrotic bacterial death by generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species to light exposure.

  • Antibacterial efficacy for broad spectrum of bacteria.

Non-specific cytotoxic reactive oxygen species damage to host cells
Responsive NPs for anti-bacterial hyperthermia treatment NIR light- triggered hyperthermia Gold NP [112], Fe3O4 MNP [113], Graphene NP [114]
  • Triggers irreversible thermal damage to bacteria in response to NIR light illumination.

Non-specific thermal damage to host cells
AMF-triggered hyperthermia Fe3O4 MNP [119121]
  • Triggers irreversible thermal damage to bacteria in response to high frequency AMF application.

Non-specific thermal damage to host cells
NPs for enhanced penetration to the biofilm matrix Surface charge functionalization
Surface coating with EPS degrading molecules
[127]
[129]
  • Enhance the efficiency of nanoparticle transport to target bacterial cells by means of tuning surface charge and surface coating with EPS degrading molecules.