Table 1.

Markers used to evaluate mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, and mitophagy.

Mechanism	Marker	Function (site)
Mitochondrial biogenesis	Subunit 1 of mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase mitochondrial (MT-ND1).	Subunit of NADH dehydrogenase (mitochondrial inner membrane).
	Mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM).	Activator of mitochondrial transcription (mitochondria).
	Nuclear respiratory factors 1 and 2 (NRF1, NRF2) and estrogen receptor alpha (ERRα).	Transcription factors for mitochondrial biogenesis (nuclei).
	Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1 alpha (beta) (PGC1α, PGC1β).	Transcriptional coactivator that regulates the genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (nuclei).
Mitochondrial dynamics	Dynamin related protein 1 (Drp-1). Mitochondrial fission protein 1 (Fis1).	Mitochondrial fission.
	Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3).	Decreases mitochondrial fission.
	Optic atrophy 1 protein (OPA1). Mitofusin-1 (Mfn1) protein. Mitofusin-2 (Mfn2) protein.	Mitochondrial fusion.
Mitophagy	Pten-induced kinase 1 (PINK1).	PINK1 activity causes the parkin protein to bind to depolarized mitochondria to induce autophagy.
	Parkin protein.	Mediates the targeting of proteins for degradation.
	Mitochondrial E3. Ubiquitin ligase 1 (Mul1).	Activator of mitophagy.
	FoxO1/FoxO3 transcription factors.	Activators of mitophagy.