TABLE 2.
DVD deficiency and offspring brain development in rodents1
| Article (y) (ref) | Species | Strain | Gestational period of VD deficiency (animals per group) | Age of testing2 | Method | Outcome of DVD-deficient vs. DVD adequate rodents |
| Almeras et al. (2007) (13) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 4) | 10 | Silver staining; Western blots | Altered expression of 36 genes and proteins involved in mitochondrial, cytoskeletal and synaptic plasticity |
| Cui et al. (2007) (14) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 6) | Day of birth, ±E23 | Immunohistochemistry | ↑ Neurospheres in SVZ |
| Cui et al. (2010) (15) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth at E12 or E15 (n = 10) | E12 or E15 | Real-time PCR | ↓ Nurr1 at E12,15; ↓ P57Kip2 at E12 |
| Eyles et al. (2003) (12) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 11–14) | Day of birth | Histology; immunohistochemistry; brain morphology | ↑ Cell proliferation; ↑ mitotic cells; ↓ NGF; ↓ GDNF; ↓ P75ntr expression; cortex longer and thinner; enlarged lateral ventricles |
| Eyles et al. (2007) (16) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 8) | 10 | Affymetrix gene microarrays; computational analysis | Dysregulation in oxidative phosphorylation, redox balance, cytoskeleton maintenance, calcium homeostasis, chaperoning, post-translational modifications, synaptic plasticity, and neurotransmission |
| Eyles et al. (2014) (5) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth at E18 (n = 3) | E18 | Western blots | No difference in subcellular Vdr distribution in the brain |
| Féron et al. (2005) (17) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth or weaning (n = 10) | 10 | Brain morphology; semiquantitative real-time PCR; Brandfort assay, ELISA | ↑ Lateral ventricle volume; ↓ GABA-Aα4; ↓MAP-2; ↓NF-L and ↓NGF |
| Grecksch et al. (2009) (18) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 6–13) | ND | Electrophysiology | ↑ LTP both after weak and strong tetanic stimulation |
| Hawes et al. (2015) (19) | Mice | BALB/c (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth at E14.5 or 17.5 (n = 6–8) | E14.5 or E17.5 | Parrafin histology; hemaotoxylin/eosin staining; immunohistohemistry; real-time PCR | ↓ Lateral ventricle volume; Tgf-β1 unchanged at E14.5, increase at E17.5, ♀ 2.2-fold, ♂ 1.5-fold;Bdnf reduced at E14.5, increased at E17.5, ♀ 4.5-fold, ♂ 1.5-fold; Foxp2 reduced at E14.5, increased at E17.5, ♀ 2.4-fold, ♂ 1.5-fold; Th unchanged at E14.5, decreased expression and localization at E17.5 in ♀ |
| Keilhoff et al. (2010) (20) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 10) | 10 | Immunohistochemistry | ↓ Cell proliferation/neurogenesis in the hippocampal DG |
| Kesby et al. (2009) (21) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth (n = 7–8) | Day of birth, ±E23 | Real-time PCR | ↓ DOPAC; ↓HVA; ↓Comt in the forebrain |
| Ko et al. (2004) (22) | Rats | Sprague-Dawley (♀/♂) | From preconception until birth at E19, E21, or E23 (n = 5) | E19, E21, E23, or P7 | Immunohistochemistry; GEArray | ↓ Apoptotic cells, most pronounced at birth; ↑ mitotic cells, no particular period |
Bdnf, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; Comt, catechol-O-methyltransferase; DG, dentate gyrus; DOPAC, dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; DVD, developmental vitamin D; E, embryonic day; Foxp2, forkhead box protein P2; GABA-Aα4, gamma-aminobutyric acid A; GDNF, glial cell line neurotrophic factor; HVA, homovanillic acid; LTP, long-term potential; MAP-2, microtubule-associated protein 2; ND, not described; NF-L, neurofilament; NGF, nerve growth factor; Nurr1, nuclear receptor related 1 protein; P, postnatal day; P57Kip2, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C; P75ntr, p75 neurotrophin receptor; ref, reference; SVZ, subventricular zone; Tgf-β1, transforming growth factor β1; Th, tyrosine hydroxylase; VD, vitamin D; Vdr, vitamin D receptor; ↓, decrease; ↑, increase; ♀, female; ♂, male.
In weeks, unless otherwise noted.