Fig. 1 .

a: Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777) is a Swiss anatomist and physiologist. His book, Primae lineae physiologiae in usum praelectionum academicarum. Gottingae: A. Vandenhoeck (1747), is shown. Von Haller, who was given credit for the discovery of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by Domenico Cotugno, stated interesting anatomical findings including the observation that the consistency of CSF increases after death (Public domain). b: Domenico Felice Antonio Cotugno (1736–1822) is a Neapolitan anatomist. His book, De ischiade nervosa commentarius. Viennae: Apud Rudolphum Gräffer (1770), is shown. Cotugno reported that liquid is present and air bubbles are absent at the meninges when it is incised and opened carefully. Therefore, Cotugno postulated that the presence of CSF at the spinal cord and brain surface may have been overlooked with the conventional cervical decapitation method.¹⁾ Furthermore, Cotugno also confirmed the outflow of liquid when a drain is placed in the lumbar sac of a cadaver in the standing position. A notable aspect of the work by Cotugno is that he proved the presence of CSF in both the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity (Public domain). c: Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) is an anatomist with a degree in mining engineering. Swedenborg described CSF using terms such as “spirituous lymph” and “highly gifted juice.” His book, The Cerebrum and Its Parts. London: James Speirs (1882), is shown (Public domain).