Fig. 1.

Regulatory mechanisms of autophagy. PI3K-I = Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase I; Akt/PKB = protein kinase B; TSC = tuberous sclerosis complex; Rheb = Ras homologue enriched in brain; GΒL = G protein β-like; AMPK = AMP-activated protein kinase; HIF-1 = hypoxia-inducible factor-1; BNIP3 = Bcl-2/E1B 19 kDa-interacting protein 3; JNK1 = c-Jun n-terminal kinase 1; IRE1 = inositol-requiring enzyme 1; PERK = PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase; eIF2α = eukaryotic initiation factor 2α; Bcl-2 = B-cell lymphoma-2; S6K1 = subunit 6 kinase 1; 4EBP1 = eIF4E-binding protein 1; ULK = Unc-51-like kinase.