Table 3.
The Benefits and Shortcomings of Various Antioxidants
| Antioxidant | Effect | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| NAC | Reduces lipid peroxidation and apoptosis in animal models and in kidney cell cultures | 4, 129, 157, 322 |
| Reduces inflammatory cytokines in ESRD patients | 113, 192 | |
| Improves kidney function in kidney transplant patients | 51 | |
| No change in serum creatinine or BUN in CKD patients | 180 | |
| No improvement in proteinuria of kidney damage in CKD patients | 243 | |
| Edaravone | Neuroprotective in stroke patients | 111 |
| Prevents lipid peroxidation and protects kidney function during IRI-induced AKI in animals | 58 | |
| Ebselen | Reduces lipid peroxidation, kidney damage, and serum creatinine in animal models of kidney injury | 37, 55, 144, 215 |
| CoQ10 (including MitoQ) | Improves glomerular and tubular damage, reduces fibrosis, and improves kidney function in animal models of AKI | 33, 55, 121, 144, 215 |
| α-Lipoic acid | Is renoprotective during various kidney injuries in animals | 45, 174, 266, 323 |
| Preserves kidney function in diabetic patients | 302 | |
| Vitamin E (including MitoV) and vitamin C | Improves kidney damage and function during IRI-induced AKI in animals | 66, 313 |
| Reduces the risk for CKD in humans | 22, 89, 123 | |
| No beneficial effects during kidney injury in humans; increased mortality in humans | 103, 116 | |
| Bardoxolone methyl | Enhanced NRF-2 activity, reduced oxidative stress, reduced kidney damage, and improved kidney function in animal models of kidney injury | 107, 220, 315 |
| Failed clinical studies; increased mortality in humans | ||
| Curcumin | Improves kidney function in animal models of kidney injury | 102, 163, 290 |
| Activates NRF-2 and HO-1 | ||
| Resveratrol | Enhances NRF-2 signaling, improves mitochondrial and kidney function in animal models of kidney injury | 34, 35, 147, 234, 255 |
| Ethyl pyruvate | Reduces oxidative stress, cyto-/chemokine release, inflammation, and kidney damage in animals during AKI | 44, 151, 177, 233 |
| Improves kidney function in animals during AKI | ||
| Calendula | Improves kidney damage and function during cisplatin-induced nephropathy in animals | 231, 298 |
| Sulforaphane | Upregulates NRF-2 signaling and protects mitochondrial function | 143, 194, 270 |
| Protects kidney function and reduces kidney damage during AKI and diabetic nephropathy in animals | ||
| Ang II/AT1 Rec inhibitors | AT1 receptor blockers (losartan, telmisartan, irbesartan, and candesartan) reduce oxidative stress in the kidneys during disease and injury and improve kidney function and proteinuria | 9, 139, 204, 258 |
| Variable adverse side effects |
AKI, acute kidney injury; Ang II, angiotensin II; AT1, angiotensin II type 1 receptor; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CoQ10, coenzyme Q10; ESRD, end-stage renal disease; NAC, N-acetylcysteine; NRF-2, nuclear factor E2-related factor.