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. 2016 Apr 18;43:277–313. doi: 10.1007/s11692-016-9382-7

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© The Author(s) 2016

Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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Fig. 3 — A variety of vectors in shape space. For convenience, each transformation is drawn twice, first as a set of landmark displacements (filled circle to open circle) in some artificially registered coordinate system and again as a thin-plate spline. Columns, left to right: a uniform transformation; a growth gradient aligned southwest-to-northeast; a “Pinocchio effect”; a meaningless composite direction in shape space (These latter are the vast majority of available directions; when each of the little vectors is distributed as a circular Gaussian of the same variance, they correspond to samples from the isotropic offset Gaussian shape distribution)