Table 1.

The specific biomarkers expressed in heart failure (HF) patients as they correlate to the underlying mechanism of the pathogenesis for HF could be utilized for the diagnosis and prognosis of HF. Adapted from Ahmad et al., 2012 [30]. APO, apoptosis antigen; GDF, growth differentiation factor; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; MMPs, matrix metalloproteinases; NGAL, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin; sST2, soluble ST2; TIMPs, matrix metalloproteinase tissue inhibitors.

Myocardial Stress	Myocardial Injury	Matrix and Cellular Remodeling	Inflammation	Oxidative Stress	Neuro-Hormones	Vascular System	Cardio-Renal Syndrome
Natriuretic	Cardiac troponins	Osteopontin	C-reactive protein	Oxidized LDL	Nor-epinephrine	Homocysteine	Creatinine
peptides	High sensitivity cardiac troponins	Galectin-3	sST2	Myeloperoxidase	Renin	Adhesion molecules	Cystatin C
Mid-regional	Myosin light-chain kinase 1	sST2	Tumor necrosis factor	Urinary biopyrrins	Angiotensin-II	ICAM, P-selectin	NGAL
Pro-adrenomedullin	Heart-type fatty acid binding protein	GDF-15	FAS (APO-1)	Urinary and plasma isoprostanes	Co-peptin	Endothelin	Trace protein
Neuregulin	Pentraxin 3	MMPs	GDF-15	Plasma malondialdehyde	Endothelin	Adiponectin
sST2		TIMPs	Pentraxin 3			C-type natriuretic peptide
		Collagen propeptides	Adipokines
			cytokines
			Procalcitonin
			Osteoprotegerin