Table 1.

Effects of maternal antenatal stress and anxiety on outcomes for infants and children

Infant and child outcomes
Infant temperament
• Reduced attention regulation at 3 and 8 months [1]  • Greater child fearfulness scores 14–19 months [2]
Development and cognitive functioning
• Lower Bayley Scales Mental Development Index (MDI) and Psychosocial Development Index (PDI) scores at 8 months [3]  • Lower Bayley Scales MDI scores at 1–2 years [4]  • Lower productive language scores at 2 years [5]  • Poorer verbal intelligence and language skills at 5 ½ years [6]  • Lower inhibitory control at 6–9 years [7]  • Impulsive response pattern on cognitive tasks at 14/15 years [8]
Emotional and behavioural problems
• Greater total problem behaviour at 27 months, 4 years and 81 months [9–11]  • Greater hyperactivity/inattention in boys at 8–9 years [12]  • Greater externalising problems 8–9 years [13]  • Greater anxiety aged 6–9 years [14]  • Greater internalising difficulties in 7–8 years [15]  • Greater depressive symptoms in adolescence [16]
Structural brain changes
• Reduced head circumference corrected for birth weight [17, 18]  • Reduced grey matter in prefrontal cortex, medial and lateral temporal lobe, postcentral gyrus and cerebellum on MRI scan at 6–9 years [19]