Table 2.
Pressure transducers used within transtibial sockets based on different transduction methods.
| Authors | Year | Objectives | Sensor Type | Mounting Method | Socket Type | Sites of Interest | No. of Subjects | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rae and Cockrell | 1971 | To compare the differences in interface peak pressures in sockets with no liner, sponge liner, and silicone liner at that time. | Diaphragm SG (Kulite) | Inserted in socket | PTB | Condylar flairs (MTC, LTC), PT, distal anterior region (Kick-point, KP) | - | [57] |
| Pearson et al. | 1973 | To compare interface pressures during standing and walking. | Diaphragm SG (Kulite) | Inserted in socket | PTB | PT, KP, MTC, and LTC | 10 | [128] |
| Chino et al. | 1975 | To investigate the effect of various suspension systems on the suction pressure between the apex of the stump and the socket during the swing phase. | Diaphragm SG (Kulite) | Inserted in socket | PTB | KP | 8 | [23] |
| Sanders et al. | 1990 | To design the instrumentation capable of measuring normal and shear stresses simultaneously in prosthetic sockets | Piston-type SG | Mounted on socket wall | - | - | - | [129] |
| Sanders et al. | 1993 | To report the characteristics of interface stress wave-form shapes and their effects on stump tissue mechanics | Piston-type SG | Mounted on socket wall | PTB | At discrete points at all socket aspects | 3 | [130] |
| Sanders et al. | 1997 | To investigate the magnitudes of maximal stance phase pressure, maximal shear stress, shear angle and changes in pressures for each of the 13 sites in sockets of two amputees. | Piston-type SG | Mounted on socket wall | PTB | 13 sites (anterior, lateral, and posterior) | 2 | [131] |
| Goh et al. | 2003 | To investigate pressure distribution in sockets fabricated using pressure casting (PCast) technique. | Piston-type SG | Mounted on socket wall | Hydrocast socket | 16 Discrete points | 5 | [44] |
| Goh et al. | 2004 | To compare pressure profile of PCast and PTB sockets | Piston-type SG | Mounted on socket wall | PTB & Hydrocast | 16 Discrete points | 4 | [132] |
| Abu Osman et al. | 2010 | To investigate the effect of varying the load (through the depth of indentation) on the patellar tendon bar on the pattern of pressure distribution at the stump–socket interface and if there is any correlation between varying the load on the patellar tendon and the pressure distribution at other sites in the socket | Piston-type SG | Mounted on socket wall | PTB | 16 sites including those in high curvature regions | 10 | [79] |
| Meier et al. | 1973 | To investigate pressures on the residual limbs of 8 transtibial amputees. | Capacitive | Inserted in socket | PTB | 5 sites | 8 | [73] |
| Dou et al. | 2006 | To measure pressures at five interesting sites of only one below-knee amputee socket during walking on stairs, flat, and non-flat roads | Capacitive | Inserted in socket | 5 sites | 1 | [6] | |
| Convery & Buis | 1998, 1999 | To compare the dynamic residual limb-socket interface pressure distributions in PTB and Hydrocast (TSB) sockets | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached to inner socket wall | PTB & Hydrocast | Overall impression of the interface | 1 | [133,134] |
| Dumbleton et al. | 2009 | To compare the dynamic interface pressure distribution and patient satisfaction between PTB sockets with Pelite liners and hydrostatic sockets with silicone liners | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached to inner socket wall | PTB & Hydrocast | Overall impression of the interface | 48 | [135] |
| Ali et al. | 2012 | To clinically investigate the interface pressure in TSB sockets with Dermo and Seal-In X5 liners during normal walking on level ground and their effect on patient satisfaction | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached in between the stump and liner | TSB | Overall impression of the interface | 9 | [136] |
| Ali et al. | 2014 | To compare the patients’ satisfaction and identify the perceived problems with the subjects’ prostheses while using three different suspension systems: Pelite, Dermo liner with shuttle lock, and Seal-In X5 liner | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached in between the stump and liner | TSB | Overall impression of the interface | 30 | [137] |
| Ali et al. | 2013, 2015 | To compare the interface pressure between the Dermo and Seal-In X5 liners during more amputees’ daily activities such as stair ascent and decent and ramp negotiation | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached in between the stump and liner | TSB | Overall impression of the interface | 10 | [92,138] |
| Eshraghi et al. | 2013 | To evaluate a patented magnetic-based suspension system in-situ with regard to the pistoning during walking | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached in between the stump and liner | TSB | Overall impression of the interface | - | [139] |
| Eshraghi et al. | 2013 | To experimentally investigate the interface pressures with the magnetic suspension system compared to the other two commonly used suspension systems: pin/lock and seal-in | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached in between the stump and liner | TSB | Overall impression of the interface | 12 | [32] |
| Eshraghi et al. | 2015 | To compare the effect of these three suspension systems on the interface pressures inside transtibial sockets during locomotion on stairs and ramps | Piezoresistive (F-Socket) | Attached in between the stump and liner | TSB | Overall impression of the interface | - | [140] |