Table 1.
Fungal contamination in medicinal herbs and spices
| S. no. | Sample | Part used | Fungal load (cfu/g) | Isolated fungi | Toxigenic fungi |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Acalypha fruticosa (Chinni) | Leaves | 2 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 2 | Acorus calamus (Sweet flag) | Root | 4.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Unknown | – | ||||
| 3 | Arachis hypogaea (Groundnut) | Seed | 2.75 × 103 | Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 |
| Aspergillus niger | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| 4 | Asparagus racemosus-I (Shatawer) | Root | 8.5 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Fusarium | – | ||||
| Penicillium citrinum | CIT | ||||
| 5 | Asparagus racemosus-II (Shatawer) | Root | 5.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Unknown | – | ||||
| 6 | Asparagus racemosus-III (Shatawer) | Root | 6.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Unknown | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| 7 | Asparagus racemosus-IV (Shatawer) | Root | 1.65 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Unknown | – | ||||
| 8 | Bergenia ciliate (Winter bergenia) | Root | 1.15 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 9 | Brassica juncea (Mustard) | Seed | 2.5 × 103 | Penicillium | – |
| 10 | Chlorophytum borivilianum-I (Safed musli) | Root | 3.5 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Fusarium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Fusarium | – | ||||
| 11 | Chlorophytum borivilianum-II (Safed musli) | Root | 8.5 × 102 | Aspergillus | – |
| Penicillium citrinum | CIT | ||||
| Penicillium citrinum | CIT | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Fusarium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Penicillium citrinum | CIT | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 12 | Chlorophytum borivilianum-III (Safed musli) | Root | 4.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 13 | Chlorophytum borivilianum-IV (Safed musli) | Root | 5.65 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| 14 | Cinnamomum verum (Cinnamon) | Bark | 7.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| 15 | Cocus nucifera (Coconut) | Fruit | 5.0 × 102 | Penicillium | – |
| 16 | Elettaria cardamomum (Cardamom) | Seed pod | 7.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Rhizopus | – | ||||
| 17 | Ficus arnottiana-I (Paras peepal) | Bark | 2.2 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Penicillium citrinum | CIT | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| 18 | Ficus arnottiana-II (Paras peepal) | Bark | 2.6 × 103 | Penicillium citrinum | CIT |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 19 | Ficus arnottiana-I (Paras peepal) | Flower | 3.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| 20 | Ficus arnottiana-II (Paras peepal) | Flower | 3.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Unknown | – | ||||
| Mucor | – | ||||
| 21 | Ficus arnottiana-III (Paras peepal) | Flower | 5.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Unknown | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 22 | Ficus arnottiana-IV (Paras peepal) | Flower | 10.4 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| 23 | Foeniculum vulgare-I (Fennel) | Seed | 3.5 × 102 | Alternaria | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 24 | Foeniculum vulgare-II (Fennel) | Seed | 2.0 × 103 | Unknown | – |
| 25 | Glycyrrhiza glabra-I (Mulethi) | Root | 1.75 × 103 | Aspergillus | – |
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Penicillium citrinum | CIT | ||||
| 26 | Glycyrrhiza glabra-II (Mulethi) | Root | 3.2 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Alternaria | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| 27 | Glycyrrhiza glabra-III (Mulethi) | Root | 5.0 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Unknown | – | ||||
| 28 | Herbal drug-1 | Unknown herb mixture | 5.0 × 101 | Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 |
| 29 | Herbal drug-2 | Unknown herb mixture | 1.5 × 104 | Aspergillus Niger | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 30 | Herbal drug-3 | Unknown herb mixture | ND | ND | – |
| 31 | Herbal drug-4 | Unknown herb mixture | 3.5 × 102 | Penicillium citrinum | CIT |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 32 | Herbal drug-5 | Unknown herb mixture | 2.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 33 | Herbal drug-6 | Unknown herb mixture | 2.3 × 103 | Aspergillus | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 34 | Herbal drug-7 | Unknown herb mixture | 2.0 × 102 | Penicillium | – |
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| 35 | Illicium verum (Star anise) | Fruit | ND | ND | – |
| 36 | Mesua ferrea-I (Nagkeshar) | Flower bud | 7.5 × 102 | Penicillium citrinum | CIT |
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 37 | Mesua ferrea-II (Nagkeshar) | Flower bud | 5.0 × 104 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| 38 | Mesua ferrea-III (Nagkeshar) | Flower bud | 2.6 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| 39 | Myristica fragrans (Mace) | Seed | 6.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 40 | Nimbapatradi churnam | Unknown herb mixture | 8.5 × 102 | Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 41 | Oroxylum indicum (Indian trumpet) | Stem bark | 1.8 × 103 | Aspergillus | – |
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Fusarium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus niger | – | ||||
| 42 | Phyllanthus emblica-I (Amla) | Fruit | 6.0 × 102 | Aspergillus | – |
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| 43 | Phyllanthus emblica-II (Amla) | Fruit | 9.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Unknown | – | ||||
| 44 | Phyllanthus emblica-III (Amla) | Fruit | 1.75 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| 45 | Piper longum (Long pepper) | Fruit | 4.0 × 102 | Mucor | – |
| 46 | Piper nigrum (Pepper) | Fruit | 1.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| 47 | Plantago ovate (Isabgol) | Fruit | ND | ND | – |
| 48 | Rheum emodi (Himalayan rubhada) | Root | ND | ND | – |
| 49 | Sesamum indicum (Sesame seed) | Seed | 7.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus niger | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| 50 | Stevia rebaudiana (Stevia) | Leaves | 3.5 × 102 | Aspergillus | – |
| Fusarium | – | ||||
| Alternaria | – | ||||
| 51 | Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) | Flower bud | ND | ND | – |
| 52 | Terminalia belerica-I (Baheda) | Fruit | 2.0 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| 53 | Terminalia belerica-II (Baheda) | Fruit | 2.0 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| 54 | Terminalia belerica-III (Baheda) | Fruit | 2.5 × 104 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| 55 | Terminalia chebula-I (Harre badi) | Fruit | 3.0 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus niger | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| 56 | Terminalia chebula-II (Harre badi) | Fruit | 8.0 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| 57 | Terminalia chebula-III (Harre badi) | Fruit | 5.0 × 104 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| 58 | Terminalia chebula-I (Harre choti) | Fruit | 4.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| 59 | Terminalia chebula-II (Harre choti) | Fruit | 8.0 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Aspergillus | – | ||||
| 60 | Terminalia chebula-III (Harre choti) | Fruit | 5.0 × 104 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| 61 | Withania somnifera-I (Ashwagandha) | Root | 2.6 × 103 | Mucor | – |
| Aspergillus niger | – | ||||
| 62 | Withania somnifera-II (Ashwagandha) | Root | 3.2 × 103 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Aspergillus flavus | AFB1 | ||||
| Mucor | – | ||||
| 63 | Withania somnifera-III (Ashwagandha) | Root | 5.5 × 102 | Aspergillus niger | – |
| Mucor | – | ||||
| Penicillium | – | ||||
| Unknown | – | ||||
| Cladosporium | – | ||||
| Unknown | – |
Samples collected at different intervals are represented as I, II, III, and IV
AFB 1 aflatoxin B1, CIT citrinin, ND none detected in the experimental conditions used