Fig. 3.

Superficially similar forest states in forests and reforests can be distinguished by their dynamic trajectories over time. a Forest trajectories in terms of structural complexity over time. b Forest states in terms of structural complexity and biological diversity. States can vary (indicated by the size of the circles and ellipses) and overlap considerably in their properties. Numbers refer to different forest states, which are illustrated in c. Natural dynamics (1) occur in conserved and remote areas. Loss of structural complexity can happen through deforestation (2) and disturbance (3). Increases of structural complexity can happen through different types of regeneration (4, 5, and 6). Agroforestry and commercial tree plantations (7 and 8) may have structural similarities to natural forests, but show different trajectories