Table 3.
Neuroendocrine studies on PTSD under ongoing threat
| Study | Sample | Gender | Time of measurement | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pico-Alfonso et al. (2004) |
N=162 30 IPV–PTSD 86 IPV without PTSD 46 control persons |
All females | 2 samples for 4 consecutive days: 8 am and 8 pm | No association between cortisol levels and PTSD IPV was associated with increased evening cortisol levels |
| Griffin et al. (2005) |
N=64 15 IPV–PTSD 27 IPV–PTSD+MDD 8 IPV without diagnosis 14 non-traumatized control persons |
All females | 2 samples: day 1, day 2 Dexamethasone (0.5 mg) administration |
PTSD and PTSD+MDD had lower baseline cortisol levels compared to control persons PTSD showed greater cortisol suppression after dexamethasone compared to PTSD+MDD and control persons |
| Neylan et al. (2005) |
N=30 police officers 5 with PTSD 25 without PTSD |
24 males 6 females |
4 samples: 1, 30, 45, 60 min after awakening Dexamethasone (0.5 mg) administration |
PTSD severity was related to lower levels of baseline cortisol No association between PTSD and post-dexamethasone cortisol |
| Inslicht et al. (2006) |
N=49 29 IPV–PTSD 20 IPV without PTSD |
All females | 4 samples; 1, 4, 9, 11 hours after awakening | Higher cortisol levels across the day in IPV–PTSD |
| Lindauer et al. (2006) |
N=24 police officers 12 with PTSD 12 without PTSD |
14 males 10 females |
3 samples: early morning, 4 pm, bedtime | Higher morning cortisol levels in PTSD |
| Johnson et al. (2008) |
N=52 32 IPV–PTSD 20 IPV without PTSD |
All females | 4 samples: upon awakening, 30, 45, 60 min after | PTSD group had higher cortisol levels More chronic abuse was related to lower waking cortisol level |
| Witteveen et al. (2010) |
N=1,880 police officers and fire fighters 98 with PTSD 1,782 without PTSD |
1,703 males 177 females |
1 saliva sample at morning or noon or afternoon | No association between cortisol levels and PTSD More negative life events were associated with lower cortisol levels |
| Austin-Ketch et al. (2011) |
N=100 police officers 35 with PTSD symptoms 65 without PTSD symptoms |
58 males 42 females |
13 samples: upon awakening, 15, 30, 45, 60 min after, prior to lunch/dinner, bedtime | Trend for higher cortisol levels in PTSD |
| Inslicht et al. (2011) |
N=296 police officers 9 with partial or full PTSD 287 without PTSD |
254 males 42 females |
2 samples (baseline, 12, 24, 36 months): upon awakening, 30 min after | Waking cortisol was not associated with PTSD symptoms |
| Pineles et al. (2013) | N=60 police officers and fire fighters | 55 males 5 females |
Immediately after waking cortisol | No association between PTSD and cortisol |
| Pinna et al. (2014) |
N=104 68 IPV–PTSD (43 +MDD) 36 IPV without PTSD |
All females | 4 samples: upon awakening, 30, 45, 60 min after | Higher waking cortisol in PTSD+MDD compared to controls PTSD only was not related to waking cortisol |
IPV: intimate partner violence; PTSD: posttraumatic stress disorder; MDD: major depressive disorder.