TABLE 3—
Major Findings From the Nurses’ Health Studies for Biomarkers and Cardiovascular Disease: United States, 1976–2016
| Biomarker | Year | General Findings and Associations |
| CRP, IL-6, TNFR I and II | 2004 | Higher risk of CHD |
| HDL- and HDL-related ratios | 2004 | Lower risk of CHD |
| Homocysteine | 2004 | Higher risk of CHD |
| Lipoprotein(a) | 2004 | Higher risk of CHD among diabetes patients |
| oxLDL | 2006 | No association with CHD after adjustment for lipid markers |
| 15:0 and trans 16:1n−7 | 2007 | Markers of dairy intake associated with higher risk of ischemic heart disease |
| Long chain n-3 fatty acids | 2008 | Lower risk of nonfatal MI |
| DHEAS | 2008/2013 | Increases risk of MI but lowers risk of stroke |
| IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 | 2008 | No association with MI |
| sTfR:ferritin ratio and ferritin | 2008 | No association with CHD |
| Vitamin B6 | 2009 | Lower risk of MI |
| Toenail nicotine | 2008 | Higher risk of CHD even after adjustment for smoking |
| Placental growth factor | 2009 | Higher risk of CHD |
| NT-proBNP | 2009 | Higher risk of SCD |
| Lp-PLA2 | 2011 | Higher risk of CHD |
| Adiponectin | 2011 | Lower risk of CHD |
| Magnesium | 2011/2014 | Lower risk of SCD and stroke |
| Toenail mercury | 2011 | No association with any CVD subtype |
| 25-hydroxyvitamin D | 2012 | Lower risk of stroke |
| ApoC-III subtypes of HDL | 2012 | HDL with ApoC-III: higher risk of CHD; HDL without ApoC-III: lower risk |
| Hemoglobin A1c | 2013 | Higher risk of CHD |
| OxPL/apoB | 2013 | Higher risk of peripheral artery disease |
| Retinol-binding protein 4 | 2013 | Higher risk of CHD |
| Telomere length | 2013 | No association with ischemic stroke |
| Fetuin-A | 2014 | No association with ischemic stroke |
| 15:0 and trans 16:1n−7 | 2014 | Markers of dairy intake were not associated with stroke |
| Very long chain saturated fats | 2015 | Lower risk of CHD |
Note. CHD = coronary heart disease; CRP = C-reactive protein; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DHEAS = dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; IGF-1 = insulin-like growth factor 1; IGFBP-3 = insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3; IL-6 = interleukin-6; Lp-PLA2 = lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2; MI = myocardial infarction; NT-proBNP = N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide; oxLDL = oxidized low-density lipoprotein; OxPL/apoB = oxidized phospholipids on apolipoprotein B; sTfR = soluble transferrin receptor; TNFR = tumor necrosis factor receptor.