TABLE 3—
Associations Between Individual Household- and Neighborhood-Level Factors and Overweight or Obesity (Full Sample): United States, 2008–2012
| Variable | Obese vs Underweight or Normal Weighta (n = 25 023), ORb (95% CI) | Overweight vs Underweight or Normal Weighta (n = 25 237), ORb (95% CI) |
| Individual level | ||
| Age | 1.02 (1.02, 1.02) | 1.03 (1.02, 1.03) |
| Gender | ||
| Male (Ref) | 1 | 1 |
| Female | 0.61 (0.57, 0.66) | 0.48 (0.45, 0.51) |
| Diet feature | 1.63 (1.56, 1.70) | 1.18 (1.14, 1.22) |
| Fast food | 1.74 (1.41, 2.14) | 1.16 (0.97, 1.38) |
| Exercise | 0.24 (0.22, 0.26) | 0.64 (0.61, 0.68) |
| Household level | ||
| USDAScore | 0.93 (0.90, 0.96) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.01) |
| Race/ethnicity | ||
| Non-Hispanic White (Ref) | 1 | 1 |
| Hispanic | 1.02 (0.82, 1.27) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.21) |
| Non-Hispanic Black | 1.73 (1.47, 2.04) | 1.32 (1.17, 1.48) |
| Asian | 0.26 (0.20, 0.34) | 0.56 (0.48, 0.65) |
| Other race | 1.08 (0.81, 1.44) | 1.08 (0.88, 1.32) |
| Household size | 1.02 (0.97, 1.06) | 1.00 (0.97, 1.03) |
| Log (income) | 0.93 (0.87, 1.00) | 1.08 (1.03, 1.14) |
| Education | ||
| ≤ high school (Ref) | 1 | 1 |
| Some college | 0.99 (0.87, 1.14) | 1.03 (0.93, 1.14) |
| College graduate | 0.78 (0.68, 0.89) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.06) |
| Post-college graduate | 0.55 (0.47, 0.65) | 0.75 (0.67, 0.84) |
| Married | 0.95 (0.85, 1.07) | 1.05 (0.97, 1.14) |
| Neighborhood level | ||
| Supermarket and other grocery | 0.98 (0.90, 1.08) | 0.98 (0.93, 1.04) |
| Clubs and supercenters | 1.48 (0.87, 2.52) | 1.03 (0.72, 1.47) |
| Convenience stores | 1.04 (0.94, 1.14) | 1.02 (0.96, 1.08) |
| Specialty food stores | 0.92 (0.78, 1.08) | 0.92 (0.83, 1.03) |
| Pharmacies and drug stores | 1.01 (0.89, 1.14) | 1.07 (0.99, 1.16) |
| Full-service restaurants | 0.97 (0.94, 0.99) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) |
| Limited-service restaurants | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) | 0.98 (0.95, 1.01) |
| Poverty rate | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 0.99 (0.99, 1.00) |
| Metro | 0.79 (0.67, 0.92) | 0.91 (0.82, 1.02) |
| Food desert tract | 1.30 (1.06, 1.59) | 1.19 (1.02, 1.38) |
| Constant | 4.24 (1.91, 9.42) | 0.27 (0.15, 0.48) |
| ICC (2nd level) | 0.430 | 0.125 |
| ICC (3rd level) | 0.021 | 0.003 |
Note. CI = confidence interval; ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient; OR = odds ratio. Values reported for ICC in the table are conditional in that they are calculated when all the independent variables are included in the model.
a
Because of the small number in the underweight population, we combined the underweight and normal-weight population as the reference category.
b
Random-intercept logit models.