Table 2.

Risk Factors Associated with Misuse, Abuse, or Diversion of Prescription Drugs

Demographic characteristics	Medical conditions	Prescription details	High risk behaviors
Race (Caucasian [37, 49–52], Non-Hispanic [34, 37], American Indians/Alaskan Natives [34]) High school education or less [49, 53, 54] Age (Younger to middle aged) [34, 37, 53, 55, 56] Not married [37, 50, 53, 54] Financial Problems [37] Unemployed [37] Male [34, 35, 53, 55, 57] Income extremes [34, 53, 55, 57] Rural residence [34, 37] LGBT [57] Public insurance [55] Low social class [58] Family history of substance abuse [59] Preadolescent sexual abuse [59]	Past Suicide Attempt [49] Lifetime Heroin use [49] Pain [39, 49, 50, 54, 60–62] Tobacco use [37, 54] Alcohol use [37–39, 57, 59] Current illicit drug use (including marijuana, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, hallucinogens) [37, 39, 57] Physical disability [37] Mental health problems [34, 39, 50, 59, 61, 63] Substance abuse disorder [39, 50, 53, 59] Hepatitis A, B, C [39] Past hospitalization [50] Opioid dependence [50] Liver disease [50] Congestive heart failure [50] Cerebrovascular disease [50] Chronic pulmonary disease [50] Diabetes [50] Hypertension [50] Cancer [50] Cardiovascular disease [50] Obesity [50] Medical comorbidities [55, 63] Past care at psychiatric hospital [58] ADHD [64]	Multiple prescribers [30, 33, 34, 52, 53, 56, 59, 65] Multiple pharmacies [30, 31, 33, 34, 56] High community prescribing rates [34] Treatment with high daily dose opioids and short-acting opioids [39, 50] Multiple prescriptions [31, 35, 50, 52, 56] Overlapping prescriptions [31] High maximum prescribed daily morphine equivalent dose [34, 35, 50, 66, 67] Preexisting opioid use [62] Co-prescribing of opioids and benzodiazepines [34]	Multiple prescribers [30, 33, 34, 52, 53, 56, 59, 65] Multiple pharmacies [30, 33, 34, 56] Multiple ED visits [50, 55, 59] Request for refill [59, 60] Lost or stolen medication [59, 60] Request for parenteral medication [60] Reported allergies to non-narcotic medications [52] Requesting medication by name [52] Weekend visit [52] Use of alias [68] Abnormal urine/blood screen [59] Resist therapy changes/alternative therapy [59] Canceled clinic visits [59]