Table 6.
Summary of stress and coping studies in elite athletes
| Authors | Type | Purpose | N (male:female) | Sport; country | Main findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anshel and Si [73] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Coping styles for acute stress | 391 (253:138) | Various; China | Responses to stressful events were highly correlated with the athlete’s coping style (either approach or avoidance). Avoidance-coping style was more common than approach coping and was associated with turning one’s attention to the next task at hand, learning from the experience and perceiving the stressor as a normal part of the contest |
| Belem et al. [74] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Impact of coping strategies on resilience | 48 (24:24) | Volleyball; Brazil | Athletes invited to the Brazilian team showed high levels of resilience. A number of coping skills impacted resilience: personal coping resources, coping with adversity, confidence and motivation, goal setting/mental preparation and coachability. Use of coping strategies to overcome problems, having defined goals, and motivation and concentration during competitions have a significant impact on development of a resilient profile in elite athletes |
| Devantier [75] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Psychological factors and injury vulnerability | 87 (87:0) | Soccer; Denmark | Somatic anxiety and coping with adversity were the best predictors of injury severity. Coping with adversity was also a significant predictors of injury duration. Players with a history of previous injuries experienced more competitive trait anxiety than players not previously injured |
| Didymus and Fletcher [64] | Quantitative; longitudinal, observational | Coping strategies in response to organisational stressors | 15 (8:7) | Swimming; UK | Employing one coping ‘family’ in isolation was perceived to be more effective than employing a combination of coping families. Self-reliance was perceived as the most effective coping family that was used in isolation, and escape and negotiation were perceived as the most effective combination of coping families. Stressful appraisals were associated with varied coping strategies |
| Dugdale et al. [76] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Coping with expected and unexpected stressors | 91 (sex not reported) | Various; New Zealand | Unexpected stressors were perceived as more threatening than expected stressors. Athletes indicated a tendency to hold back from responding to unexpected stressors. Athletes used a variety of strategies to cope, with the highest ratings for acceptance, increasing efforts and planning. Venting of emotions, humour and denial were rated least frequently |
| Gastin [65] | Quantitative; longitudinal, observational | Monitored coping over the season | 27 (sex not reported) | Australian Rules Football; Australia | Players generally coped well with the demands of elite competition; however, relative poor sleep quality was observed. Pain/stiffness and sleep quality had the highest average scores (poor). Subjective ratings of physical and psychological wellness were sensitive to changes to weekly training |
| Grove and Hanrahan [85] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Psychological strengths profile; athlete and coach comparison | 39 athletes (15:24), 5 coaches | Field hockey; Australia | Ranking by players (greatest perceived strength to weakness): control of anxiety, maintaining concentration, planning and analysis, emotional control, use of imagery, maintaining self-confidence. Coaches perceived players to be relatively good at maintaining concentration and self-confidence, though relatively poor at controlling emotions and tension |
| Gutmann et al. [66] | Quantitative; longitudinal, observational | Psychological impact of training | 11 (11:0) | Speed skating; USA | Stress reactivity and emotional lability likely to be detrimental to performance and characteristic of less experienced athletes. The most common acute stress reported was pain and fatigue, which had a cumulative effect on physical and psychological states. Associative and dissociative cognitive strategies were used to cope with acute stress. Setting daily goals, social support and maximising intrinsic rewards were used for coping with chronic stress |
| Ivarsson [67] | Quantitative; longitudinal, observational | Psychological predictors of injury | 56 (38:18) | Soccer; Sweden | Trait anxiety, negative-life-event stress and daily hassles significantly predicted injury among professional soccer players, accounting for 24 % of variance |
| Johnson [79] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational, comparison study | Personality, mood and coping ability and injury | 81 (65:16) | Various; Sweden | Injury was found to result in a depressed mood and in activation of coping strategies directed at receiving help. Female athletes become more anxious and tense, and used more emotion-focused coping strategies, than male athletes. Team-sport athletes were found to cope more in terms of ‘passive acceptance’ of help from others, whereas individual athletes were found to activate ‘problem-solving’ strategies in face of a stressor |
| Kristiansen et al. [77] | Mixed method; cross-sectional, observational | Relationship between task involvement and coping strategies | 82 (60:22) | Wrestling; Europe | Being task involved was associated with use of more adaptive coping strategies (e.g. active coping, emotional support, instrumental support and positive reframing) than being ego involved. A total of 55 % of the variance in the choice of coping strategy was explained by task involvement (task orientation and mastery climate) |
| Kristiansen et al. [86] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Stress and motivation | 82 (82:0) | Football; Europe | A mastery climate was directly and negatively associated with coach–athlete stress, while a performance climate was directly and positively associated with coach–athlete stress |
| Maestu et al. [68] | Quantitative; longitudinal, validation | Stress and recovery | 12 (12:0) | Rowing; Estonia | Training volume associated with changes in fatigue (R = 0.66) and changes in general wellbeing (R = −0.62). Results demonstrated an increase in stress during a high-volume training period, and a decrease during the recovery period. An opposite effect was found in recovery scales |
| Mahoney and Avener [80] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Psychological factors and cognitive strategies | 12 (12:0) | Gymnastics; USA | Self-verbalisations and certain forms of mental imagery differentiated Olympic-level and non-Olympic-level gymnasts. All finalists used imagery extensively, but the better athletes reported a higher frequency of ‘internal’ rather than ‘external’ images, and better gymnasts experienced greater self-confidence |
| Nicholls et al. [69] | Mixed method; longitudinal, observational | Stressors and coping strategies | 8 (8:0) | Rugby; Europe | Frequently cited stressors were injury concerns, mental errors and physical errors, with a general decline in frequency as the season progressed. The most frequently cited coping strategies were increased concentration on task, blocking, positive reappraisal and increasing effort. Problem-focused coping strategies were used most frequently, followed by avoidance coping then emotion-focused coping |
| Nicholls et al. [71] | Mixed method; longitudinal, observational | Stressors and coping strategies | 5 (5:0) | Rugby; various | Differences in stressors were identified in comparison of match and training days. Anxiety was the most cited emotion during training days and anger was the most cited emotion during match days. Coping effectiveness was greater during training than during matches. Emotional intensity was negatively associated with coping effectiveness |
| Nicholls et al. [70] | Mixed method; longitudinal, observational | Stressors and coping strategies | 10 (5:5) | Cross-country running; UK | Stressors such as injury, illness and fatigue were more prominent during training than during competition. Athletes used more problem solving, planning, behaviour change and positive self-talk during training. Increasing effort and blocking were used more often during competition. Problem-focused coping strategies were associated with greater control of stressors, and a significant negative correlation occurred between stressor intensity and coping effectiveness |
| Noblet et al. [81] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational, validation | Stressors, job strain, psychological health | 255 (255:0) | Australian Rules Football; Australia | Job control and work support were significant predictors of the dissatisfaction experienced by study participants. Only social support had a significant impact on both psychological health and job satisfaction outcomes. Strong links between club-based support and player wellbeing indicated that elite sporting organisations need to closely monitor the effectiveness of the social support provided by coaching staff, team mates and other club sources. The football-specific stressor that was predictive of both health and job satisfaction outcomes was post-football uncertainty |
| Pensgaard and Ursin [82] | Mixed method; cross-sectional, observational | Stressors and coping strategies | 69 (49:20) | Various (winter sports); Norway | Stress was mainly experienced prior to competition. External distractions and expectations were the most frequently reported stress experiences. The coach was viewed as a major source of stress, with a subsequent lack of control and low satisfaction with performance. Type of stress was more detrimental to performance than time of experience |
| Pensgaard and Roberts [83] | Quantitative; cross-sectional, observational | Sources of distress, motivation, role of coach | 69 (49:20) | Various (winter sports); Norway | Performance climate significantly predicted high total distress. Athletes with lower perceptions of ability perceived the coach to be more a source of distress than athletes with high perceptions. Perception of a mastery climate was negatively associated with the coach as a source of distress |
| Pensgaard and Roberts [84] | Mixed method; cross-sectional, observational | Sources of distress, motivation, role of coach | 7 (5:2) | Skiing; Norway | All athletes rated very highly on task orientation, and in the moderate to high range on ego orientation. Most athletes perceived a high mastery climate and a low performance climate. Athletes emphasised the importance of the coach as creating the climate, as preferences for a supportive and caring climate |
| Wippert and Wippert [72] | Quantitative; longitudinal, observational | Stressors (career ending) and coping strategies | 40 (17:23) | Skiing; Germany | Athletes who experienced supportive termination (involving discussion with coaches) acknowledged fewer symptoms of traumatic stress than those who experienced socially disintegrative termination. Nearly 20 % of participants acknowledged clinically relevant levels of traumatic stress at 3 and 8 months post-termination |