Figure 2.

Diagrammatic representation of the overlap between insulin signaling pathway, reactive oxygen species (ROS), inflammatory cytokine such as NF-κB and ubiquitin-proteasome system in insulin resistant (IR) states particularly diabetes: In IR state, PI3K activity is decreased, leading to decreased activity of Akt, which in turn release the inhibition of FOXO and caspase-3 resulting in elevation of muscle ring finger-1 (MuRF-1) and muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx/atrogin-1) finally leading to increased proteolytic activity. Also, ROS and low grade inflammation via NF-κB pathway lead to muscle atrophy. See text for more details.