Figure 2:

The idealized integration of management and scientific activities for the provision of different levels of scientific advice to aid decision-making. The dashed lines represent the communication between managers and researchers that is necessary to promote the advancement in the level of scientific advice provided (see ‘Communication’ section). The diagram is presented from the researcher's perspective of trying to advise managers. The level of scientific advice is a function of both the state of scientific knowledge determined by the scientific learning activity (denoted in italics) and the specific integration activity with management (denoted in bold). For example, prescriptions (i.e. Level 5 scientific advice) result from a combination of high-quality science (i.e. predictions) and joint communication activities with managers and affected user groups.