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Regulation of autophagy by oxidative stress in first trimester placenta. Elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an increased AMP/ATP ratio (low ATP levels) activate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which phosphorylates Tsc2 and activates the Tsc1-Tsc2 complex. Activated Tsc inhibits mammalian target of rapamycin complex (mTORC1) thereby stimulating production of the autophagy-related proteins LC3II, beclin 1, and Atg5-Atg12-Atg16L and induction of autophagy
