Table 4.
Longitudinal association between subject characteristics and annual change in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score over the 3-year follow-up using linear regression (N = 328)
| Unadjusted | p value | Adjusted for sociodemographicsa | p value | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age in years | – | – | ||||
| Sex female | −0.12 (−0.37 to 0.12) | 0.316 | – | −0.11 (−0.37 to 0.14) | 0.386 | – |
| Attended high school | 0.10 (−0.15 to 0.35) | 0.414 | – | 0.18 (−0.08 to 0.44) | 0.181 | – |
| Current smoking | −0.55 (−1.03 to −0.08) | 0.022 | – | −0.66 (−1.13 to −0.19) | 0.006 | – |
| Current alcohol drinking | −0.05 (−0.30 to 0.21) | 0.726 | – | −0.08 (−0.34 to 0.18) | 0.538 | – |
| Living alone | 0.10 (−0.15 to 0.36) | 0.430 | – | 0.22 (−0.05 to 0.50) | 0.110 | – |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | ||||||
| Underweight (−18.5) | −0.06 (−0.39 to 0.28) | 0.743 | 0.761 | −0.04 (−0.37 to 0.30) | 0.818 | 0.923 |
| Normal (18.5–25.0) | Reference | Reference | ||||
| Overweight (25.0–) | −0.12 (−0.47 to 0.22) | 0.476 | −0.06 (−0.40 to 0.27) | 0.715 | ||
| Carotid Artery Plaque Score | ||||||
| No plaque (0) | Reference | 0.369 | 0.097 | |||
| Mild atherosclerosis (1.2–4.9) | 0.00 (−0.27 to 0.28) | 0.983 | −0.06 (−0.33 to 0.21) | 0.646 | ||
| Moderate to severe atherosclerosis (5.0–) | −0.21 (−0.55 to 0.12) | 0.208 | −0.35 (−0.69 to −0.02) | 0.037 | ||
| Cytomegalovirus Immunoglobulin G antibody | ||||||
| Q1 (2.0–12.3) | Reference | 0.246 | Reference | 0.255 | ||
| Q2 (12.4–18.3) | 0.16 (−0.18 to 0.49) | 0.357 | 0.12 (−0.21 to 0.45) | 0.472 | ||
| Q3 (18.4–29.3) | −0.21 (−0.54 to 0.13) | 0.225 | −0.22 (−0.55 to 0.11) | 0.195 | ||
| Q4 (29.4–) | 0.05 (−0.30 to 0.40) | 0.791 | −0.00 (−0.35 to 0.35) | 0.991 | ||
| Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (pg/mL) | ||||||
| Q1 (1.12–1.86) | Reference | 0.197 | Reference | 0.088 | ||
| Q2 (1.87–2.174) | −0.13 (−0.46 to 0.19) | 0.426 | −0.26 (−0.58 to 0.07) | 0.124 | ||
| Q3 (2.175–2.77) | −0.07 (−0.40 to 0.27) | 0.703 | −0.09 (−0.43 to 0.25) | 0.606 | ||
| Q4 (2.78–) | 0.29 (−0.05 to 0.62) | 0.090 | 0.17 (−0.17 to 0.51) | 0.327 | ||
| Interleukin-6 (pg/mL) | ||||||
| Q1 (0.43–1.28) | Reference | 0.548 | Reference | 0.727 | ||
| Q2 (1.29–1.68) | 0.11 (−0.22 to 0.43) | 0.513 | 0.04 (−0.28 to 0.36) | 0.421 | ||
| Q3 (1.69–2.46) | 0.13 (−0.21 to 0.47) | 0.449 | 0.04 (−0.31 to 0.39) | 0.811 | ||
| Q4 (2.47–) | −0.10 (−0.44 to 0.24) | 0.575 | −0.13 (−0.47 to 0.21) | 0.447 | ||
| Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (mg/dL) | ||||||
| Q1 (47–96) | Reference | 0.900 | Reference | 0.842 | ||
| Q2 (97–114) | 0.01 (−0.34 to 0.37) | 0.937 | 0.07 (−0.28 to 0.42) | 0.690 | ||
| Q3 (115–130) | 0.12 (−0.23 to 0.47) | 0.494 | 0.15 (−0.19 to 0.50) | 0.379 | ||
| Q4 (131–239) | 0.03 (−0.31 to 0.37) | 0.866 | 0.05 (−0.30 to 0.40) | 0.778 | ||
| High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (mg/dL) | ||||||
| Q1 (25–48) | Reference | 0.860 | Reference | 0.978 | ||
| Q2 (49–58) | 0.03 (−0.31 to 0.37) | 0.870 | 0.07 (−0.28 to 0.41) | 0.694 | ||
| Q3 (59–68) | −0.04 (−0.39 to 0.30) | 0.802 | 0.005 (−0.34 to 0.35) | 0.979 | ||
| Q4 (69–113) | −0.11 (−0.46 to 0.23) | 0.518 | 0.02 (−0.34 to 0.39) | 0.894 | ||
| Medical history | ||||||
| Hypertension | 0.13 (−0.14 to 0.41) | 0.337 | – | 0.13 (−0.14 to 0.40) | 0.340 | – |
| Cardiovascular disease | 0.01 (−0.24 to 0.25) | 0.958 | – | −0.003 (−0.25 to 0.24) | 0.982 | – |
| Diabetes mellitus | 0.04 (−0.34 to 0.41) | 0.850 | – | 0.03 (−0.34 to 0.41) | 0.854 | – |
| Chronic kidney disease | −0.01 (−0.26 to 0.23) | 0.926 | – | −0.02 (−0.26 to 0.22) | 0.862 | – |
| Activities of daily living | ||||||
| 1 (10–94) | Reference | 0.140 | Reference | 0.018 | ||
| 2 (95–99) | 0.18 (−0.38 to 0.74) | 0.530 | 0.19 (−0.36 to 0.75) | 0.497 | ||
| 3 (100–) | 0.39 (−0.03 to 0.81) | 0.069 | 0.54 (0.12 to 0.96) | 0.012 | ||
| Instrumental activities of daily living | ||||||
| 1–3 | Reference | 0.108 | Reference | 0.026 | ||
| 4 | 0.59 (0.03 to 1.15) | 0.040 | 0.67 (0.12 to 1.22) | 0.016 | ||
| 5 | 0.48 (−0.01 to 0.97) | 0.054 | 0.66 (0.17 to 1.14) | 0.008 | ||
| Grip strength (kg) | ||||||
| Q1 (M 11.0–21.0, F 4.0–12.4) | Reference | Reference | ||||
| Q2 (M 21.1–24.4, F 13.5–15.5) | 0.08 (−0.30 to 0.46) | 0.686 | 0.745 | 0.22 (−0.16 to 0.59) | 0.251 | 0.214 |
| Q3 (M 24.5–27.2, F 15.6–18.8) | 0.21 (−0.17 to 0.58) | 0.286 | 0.39 (0.01 to 0.77) | 0.045 | ||
| Q4 (M 27.3–41.5, F 18.9–24.5) | 0.11 (−0.26 to 0.47) | 0.562 | 0.33 (−0.05 to 0.70) | 0.085 | ||
Values are β coefficients with corresponding 95 % confidence interval. p values for categorical variables include p value for each level of category (left column) and its joint p value (right column). Cognitive function was measured using Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score. Scores range from 0 to 30, with lower scores indicating worse cognitive function. The analyses were restricted to individuals with an MMSE score of 18 or above to exclude those with signs of severe cognitive impairment already at baseline
aAdjusted for age, sex, education, and baseline MMSE score (categorized into three groups: ≥26, 22–25, and 18–21)