Table 4. Multivariable-adjusted relative risk of cardiovascular disease in relation to frequency of bowel movements according to baseline characteristics in the Nurses’ Health Study (1982–2012)*.
| Frequency of bowel movements |
P for trend | P for interaction | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| > 1/Day | Daily | Every 2 days | Every 3–4 days | Every 5 days or less | |||
| Age | 0.01 | ||||||
| ≥48 years (Case = 5759) | 0.98 (0.91, 1.07) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.97 (0.90, 1.04) | 0.93 (0.83, 1.04) | 0.90 (0.69, 1.17) | 0.45 | |
| <48 years (Case = 1869) | 1.25 (1.09, 1.43) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.07) | 1.14 (0.96, 1.35) | 1.08 (0.73, 1.61) | 0.01 | |
| Body mass index | 0.18 | ||||||
| ≥30 kg/m2 (Case = 1413) | 0.96 (0.84, 1.10) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.95 (0.80, 1.13) | 1.08 (0.84, 1.39) | 0.79 (0.41, 1.52) | 0.72 | |
| 25–30 kg/m2 (Case = 2216) | 1.20 (1.06, 1.36) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.04 (0.93, 1.17) | 0.92 (0.76, 1.11) | 1.06 (0.70, 1.59) | 0.01 | |
| <25 kg/m2 (Case = 5566) | 1.03 (0.92, 1.15) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.92 (0.85, 1.01) | 0.98 (0.87, 1.11) | 0.95 (0.71, 1.26) | 0.13 | |
| Smoking status | 0.47 | ||||||
| Current smokers (Case = 2783) | 1.00 (0.88, 1.12) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.98 (0.87, 1.09) | 1.02 (0.87, 1.19) | 1.10 (0.78, 1.54) | 0.98 | |
| Non-current smokers (Case = 4819) | 1.08 (0.99, 1.18) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.04) | 0.98 (0.87, 1.11) | 0.88 (0.66, 1.17) | 0.02 | |
| Alcohol intake | 0.12 | ||||||
| Drinkers (Case = 5262) | 1.05 (0.97, 1.15) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.05) | 1.11 (0.86, 1.42) | 0.03 | |
| Non-drinkers (Case = 2340) | 1.04 (0.92, 1.18) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.03 (0.92, 1.15) | 1.08 (0.91, 1.27) | 0.68 (0.43, 1.05) | 0.74 | |
| Physical activity | 0.37 | ||||||
| ≥1.5 h/week (Case = 3411) | 1.07 (0.97, 1.19) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.06) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.21) | 1.20 (0.88, 1.65) | 0.28 | |
| <1.5 h/week (Case = 4124) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.14) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.06) | 0.81 (0.59, 1.10) | 0.09 | |
| Hypertension | 0.88 | ||||||
| Hypertensive (Case = 2546) | 1.10 (0.99, 1.23) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.08) | 1.03 (0.86, 1.22) | 1.01 (0.66, 1.52) | 0.08 | |
| Non-hypertensive (Case = 4989) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.12) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.04) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.07) | 0.94 (0.73, 1.22) | 0.18 | |
| Diabetes | 0.18 | ||||||
| Diabetic (Case = 594) | 0.97 (0.78, 1.21) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.02 (0.80, 1.31) | 1.19 (0.84, 1.69) | 1.29 (0.62, 2.71) | 0.43 | |
| Non-diabetic (Case = 6941) | 1.06 (0.99, 1.14) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.02) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.06) | 0.93 (0.74, 1.18) | 0.01 | |
| Laxative use | 0.14 | ||||||
| Users (Case = 820) | 1.23 (0.94, 1.62) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.92 (0.78, 1.09) | 0.83 (0.68, 1.02) | 0.74 (0.50, 1.11) | 0.005 | |
| Non-users (Case = 5317) | 1.03 (0.95, 1.11) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.97 (0.89, 1.05) | 1.10 (0.96, 1.26) | 0.99 (0.68, 1.43) | 0.55 | |
| Total fiber intake | 0.59 | ||||||
| ≥15.7 g/d (Case = 2347) | 0.99 (0.87, 1.12) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.97 (0.86, 1.09) | 0.90 (0.75, 1.09) | 0.83 (0.53, 1.29) | 0.55 | |
| <15.7 g/d (Case = 2268) | 1.06 (0.94, 1.20) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.07) | 1.11 (0.94, 1.31) | 0.83 (0.54, 1.28) | 0.37 | |
| Red meat intake | 0.005 | ||||||
| ≥1.28 serving/d (Case = 2372) | 0.88 (0.78, 1.00) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.88 (0.78, 1.00) | 0.91 (0.76, 1.10) | 0.75 (0.47, 1.17) | 0.83 | |
| <1.28 serving/d (Case = 2241) | 1.20 (1.06, 1.35) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.05 (0.93, 1.18) | 1.12 (0.94, 1.33) | 0.93 (0.61, 1.42) | 0.09 | |
| Total energy intake | 0.72 | ||||||
| ≥1509 kcal/d (Case = 2369) | 0.97 (0.87, 1.10) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.98 (0.87, 1.11) | 1.08 (0.90, 1.29) | 0.85 (0.53, 1.35) | 0.65 | |
| <1509 kcal/d (Case = 2246) | 1.08 (0.95, 1.23) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.04) | 0.96 (0.80, 1.14) | 0.81 (0.54, 1.22) | 0.04 | |
| Alternate Healthy Eating Index score | 0.03 | ||||||
| ≥33.1 (Case = 2670) | 1.15 (1.03, 1.28) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (0.90, 1.12) | 1.06 (0.90, 1.25) | 0.87 (0.58, 1.30) | 0.05 | |
| <33.1 (Case = 2720) | 0.92 (0.82, 1.04) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.87 (0.78, 0.98) | 0.89 (0.75, 1.05) | 0.72 (0.48, 1.09) | 0.44 | |
*Results for age, physical activity, total fiber intake, red meat intake, total energy intake, and Alternate Healthy Eating Index score were stratified by the median value. Models were adjusted for the same covariates as shown in Model 4, Table 2.