Table 2.
Risk of Diabetes Manifestation and First Negative Diabetes Test by Drug Class
| Drug exposure | Unadjusted | Adjusted |
|---|---|---|
| A: Hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) for diabetes manifestation* (first positive glucose test or initiation of antidiabetic drugs) | ||
| Beta blockers | 1.90 (1.81–2.00) | 1.41 (1.34–1.49) |
| Statins | 1.32 (1.25–1.40) | 1.15 (1.08–1.22) |
| Thiazide diuretics | 1.80 (1.71–1.91) | 1.49 (1.41–1.58) |
| Antidepressants | 1.35 (1.28–1.43) | 1.26 (1.19–1.33) |
| Atypical antipsychotics | 1.99 (1.66–2.39) | 1.73 (1.44–2.08) |
| Renin–angiotensin system blockers | 1.61 (1.52–1.70) | 1.19 (1.12–1.26) |
| Calcium channel blockers | 1.63 (1.50–1.76) | 1.27 (1.17–1.38) |
| B: Hazard ratios (95% CIs) for first negative glucose test* | ||
| Beta blockers | 1.47 (1.44–1.50) | 1.38 (1.35–1.40) |
| Statins | 1.61 (1.57–1.65) | 1.42 (1.38–1.46) |
| Thiazide diuretics | 1.43 (1.40–1.46) | 1.36 (1.33–1.39) |
| Antidepressants | 1.40 (1.38–1.43) | 1.36 (1.34–1.38) |
| Atypical antipsychotics | 1.82 (1.69–1.96) | 1.87 (1.74–2.01) |
| Renin–angiotensin system blockers | 1.42 (1.39–1.45) | 1.38 (1.35–1.41) |
| Calcium channel blockers | 1.35 (1.30–1.40) | 1.24 (1.20–1.28) |
| C: Rate ratios (95% CIs) for glucose testing* (all glucose tests during follow-up) | ||
| Beta blockers | 1.32 (1.31–1.33) | 1.27 (1.26–1.28) |
| Statins | 1.21 (1.20–1.22) | 1.16 (1.15–1.17) |
| Thiazide diuretics | 1.13 (1.12–1.14) | 1.13 (1.12–1.14) |
| Antidepressants | 1.22 (1.21–1.23) | 1.21 (1.20–1.22) |
| Atypical antipsychotics | 1.71 (1.67–1.76) | 1.76 (1.72–1.81) |
| Renin–angiotensin system blockers | 1.27 (1.26–1.28) | 1.26 (1.24–1.27) |
| Calcium channel blockers | 1.38 (1.36–1.40) | 1.27 (1.25–1.28) |
*
Reference is no exposure to the respective drug class; “unadjusted” hazard and rate ratios are adjusted only for concomitant use of other drug classes; “adjusted” hazard and rate ratios are additionally adjusted for time-varying covariates (age, calendar year, non-topical corticosteroid use), baseline covariates (gender, FBG level at index date), and covariates derived from laboratory tests and inpatient or outpatient visits during the 6-month look-back period (LDL, HDL, TRI, BP, BMI, and cardiovascular disease, consisting of coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, peripheral vascular disease, or cerebrovascular disease).