Table 3.
The upregulated inflammatory factors and their receptors in DMD muscles as the future targets for anti-inflammatory drugs
| Inflammatory factor (ligands) | Receptors | Upregulated ligands or receptors |
|---|---|---|
| DAMPs | ||
| ATP | P2X7 | P2X7 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice81), P2X7 protein (dystrophic myoblasts and myotubes81,85) |
| Amyloid A | TLR2 | Serum amyloid A-2 protein (serum from mdx mice73) |
| HSP70 | HSP70 1A/1B protein (serum from DMD patients74), HSP70 protein (human DMD muscles75) | |
| Fibrinogen | Fibrinogen gamma chain (serum from mdx mice74), fibrinogen (serum from DMD patients74), fibrinogen protein (muscles from mdx mice and DMD patients76) | |
| HMGB1 | TLR2/4 | HMGB1 protein in the cytoplasm (mdx and human DMD muscles7), HMGB1 total protein (muscles of mdx mice7) |
| Chemoattractants | ||
| CCL2 | CCR2 | CCL2 mRNA and protein (muscles of mdx mice6,63), CCR2 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice6,63) |
| CCL7 | CC7 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice6,63) | |
| CCL8 | CCL8 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice6,63) | |
| CCL12 | CCL12 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice6) | |
| CXCL1 | CXCR2 | CXCL1 protein (muscles of mdx mice62) |
| CXCL2 | CXCL2 protein (muscles of mdx mice62) | |
| CXCL3 | CXCL3 protein (muscles of mdx mice62) | |
| CXCL8 | CXCR1, CXCR2 | CXCL8 protein (muscles of mdx mice62) |
| CXCL11 | CXCR3 | CXCL11 protein (muscles of mdx mice62) |
| MIF | CXCR2, CXCR4 | MIF protein (muscles from Becker muscular dystrophy patients65), CXCR4 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice62) |
| Others | ||
| IL6 | IL6R | IL6 mRNA (muscles of mdx mice91,92), IL6 protein (serum from mdx mice90,92 and DMD patients90,91) |
| OPN | Integrin, CD44 | OPN mRNA (muscles of mdx mice78), OPN protein (in muscles and serum of mdx mice,78 and dystrophic dogs99) |
Abbreviations: CCL, C-C motif chemokine ligand; CCR, CCL receptor; CXCL, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand; CXCR, CXCL receptor; DMD, Duchenne muscular dystrophy; DAMPs, danger-associated molecular patterns; HMGB, high-mobility group box protein; HSP, heat shock protein; IL, interleukin; IL6R, IL-6 receptor; MIF, macrophage migration inhibitory factor; OPN, osteopontin; TLR, Toll-like receptor.